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littp://www.arcliive.org/details/foragefibercropsOOIiuntrich 


STiie  forage  antr  fihtt  Crope 
in  America 


BY 


THOMAS  F.  HUNT 


Professor  of  Agronomy  in  the  New    Tork  State   College  of  Agriculture 
at  Cornell   University ;  Author  of  ^*Tbe   Cereals  in  Amer- 
ica''* and  ^^Hoiv  to   Choose  a  Farm*'' 


NEW    YORK 

ORANGE    JUDD    COMPANY 

LONDON 

KEGAN    PAUL,  TRENCH,  TRUBNER  &  CO.,   Limit«5d 

I911 


Copyright,   1907 

BY 

Orange  Judd  Company 
All  Rights  Reserved 


Entered  at  Sutioners'   Hall 
London,  England 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America 


PREFACE 

In  the  pages  which  follow  the  characteristics  of  the  forage 
and  fiber  crops  are  discussed,  and  the  results  of  experiment 
and  experience  as  to  their  climatic  and  soil  adaptation,  cultural 
methods,  insect  enemies,  fungous  diseases,  harvesting,  use,  and 
marketing  are  summarized  with  special  reference  to  American 
conditions.  This  volume  with  "The  Cereals  in  America"  is 
intended  to  cover  the  principal  field  crops  as  distinguished  from 
garden  and  orchard  crops  raised  in  America.  There  are  some 
omissions,  such  as  coffee,  hops,  teasel,  medicinal  and  aromatic 
herbs,  which  are  more  or  less  extensively  raised  as  field  crops. 
The  most  obvious  omissions,  however,  are  potatoes  and  tobacco. 
A  recent  book,  "The  Potato,"  by  Samuel  Fraser,  makes  a  dis- 
cussion of  this  important  crop  unnecessary. 

With  the  exceptions  noted,  'The  Cereals  in  America"  and 
"The  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America"  cover  what  in  the 
historical  and  old  Roman  sense  was  known  as  agriculture  (Ager 
open  or  field  +  cultura  cultivation)  in  contradistinction  to 
horticulture  (Hortus  enclosure  or  garden  +  cultura  cultivation). 
Agriculture,  however,  has  come  to  have  a  much  wider  meaning; 
viz.,  the  science  and  art  of  producing  living  things.  It  is  thus 
distinct  from  mining,  manufacturing,  trade  and  transportation. 
As  the  manufacturer,  so  is  the  farmer  deeply  concerned  with 
trade  and  transportation,  although  these  activities  are  neither 
manufacturing  nor  farming.     Many  an  able  farmer  has  failed 


VI  PREFACE 

of  the  financial  success  to  which  his  ability  as  a  farmer  entitled 
him  through  a  lack  of  skilful  marketing  of  his  products. 

In  order  to  prevent  repetition,  cross-reference  is  made  not 
only  to  paragraphs  in  this  A^olume,  but  also  to  those  in  **The 
Cereals  in  America."  When  reference  is  made  to  the  latter 
volume,  C.  A.  precedes  the  number  of  the  paragraph  to  which 
reference  is  made. 

In  preparing  the  following  pages,  the  author  has  had  the 
advantage  of  the  criticisms  of  his  colleagues  in  the  Department 
of  Agronomy.  Monographs  on  different  farm  crops,  which  have 
been  prepared  in  the  Department  by  postgraduate  students,  have 
been  freely  consulted  and  have  proved  helpful.  The  author  is 
under  special  obligations  to  H.  J.  Webber  for  reading  and 
criticising  the  manuscript  on  cotton,  and  to  J.  F.  Duggar  for 
a  like  service  concerning  the  manuscript  on  cowpeas.  J.  G. 
Lipman  not  only  read  Chapter  VH  on  Leguminous  Forage 
Crops,  but  kindly  prepared  some  paragraphs  which  have  been 
included.  The  illustrations  have  been  drawn  largely  by  B.  F. 
Williamson;  while  the  author's  secretary,  C.  C.  Poindexter,  has 
rendered  efficient  service  in  the  preparation  of  materials  for 
the  text. 

THOMAS   F.   HUNT. 

Cornell  Univf.rsity, 
Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  June  1,  1907. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER    I 

PERENNIAL    FORAGE    GRASSES 

I.    Characters  and  Habits 

PAGE 

Designation i 

Relationships i 

Duration 3 

Common  characters,  p.  6;  Growing  point  of  leaf,  p.  6; 
Variations,  p.  8;  Healthfulness,  p.  lo;  Palatability, 
p.  lo;  Prolificacy,  p.  12  •  Number  of  plants  per  acre, 
p.  12, 

Composition 13 

Digestibility 15 

11.    Seeds  and  Mixtures 

Quality  of  Seed 15 

Weight  per  bushel,  p.  17;  Impurities,  p.  17;  Sampling 
seeds,  p.  19;  Seed  identification,  p.  20;  Germination 
of  seeds,  p.  20. 

Grass  Mixtures '.         .        .21 

Calculating  mixtures,  p.  22. 

Pasture  Grasses 23 

Native  grasses,  p.  24;  Influence  of  species  of  plants 
on  value  of  pasture,  p.  25. 
Collateral  Reading  .  .        .        .        .        .26 

CHAPTER   II 

PERENNIAL  FORAGE  GRASSES 

I.    Cultural  Methods 

Nurse  Crop 2y 

Method  of  Seeding        .         .         ....         .         .         .28 

Time  of  seeding,  p.  28;  Depth  of  seeding,  p.  29;  Rota- 
tions, p.  29. 

vii 


VlU  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Fertilizing  Elements 31 

Essential  conditions  for  the  successful  use  of  ferti- 
lizers upon  grasses,  p.  32 ;  Application  of  commercial 
fertilizers,  p.  34. 

Methods  of  Improving  Pastures 34 

II.    Production  and  Harvesting 
Distribution  and  Adaptation 36 

Yield,  p.  37. 
Time  of  Harvesting 38 

Curing  hay,  p.  39. 

III.    Hay  Making  Machines  and  Marketing 

Mowing-machines 41 

Hay  rakes,  p.  42;  Hay  tedders,  d.  44;  Hay  loaders, 
p.  44;  Stacking,  p.  45;  Hay  forks,  p.  47;  Baling, 
p.  48. 

Marketing 49 

Commercial  grades,  p.  50. 
Collateral  Reading 51 

CHAPTER  HI 

PERENNIAL   FORAGE    GRASSES 

I.    Timothy 

Name 52 

Relationships 52 

Description,  p.  52;  Seed,  p.  54;  Variations,  p.  55; 
Improvement,  p.  55;  Adaptation,  p.  57;  Rotations, 
p.  57;  Amount  of  seed,  p.  58;  Seeding,  p.  58;  Time 
of  cutting,  p.  59. 

Advantages 61 

Comparison  of  timothy  and  orchard  grass  seed,  p.  61. 
Disadvantages .62 

II.    Meadow  Foxtail 

Description 62 

Seed,  p.  63;  Adaptation  and  value,  p.  63. 
Collateral  Reading 64 


CONTENTS  IX 

CHAPTER   IV 

PERENNIAL    FORACIE    (iRASSES 

I.    Rcdtop 

VAGE 

Relationships  . 66 

Description,  p.  68;  Adaptation,  p.  70;  Value,  p.  70. 

II.    Kentucky  Blue  Grass 

Name 7^ 

Relationships ^2 

Description,  p.  73;  Seed,  p.  74;  Seeding,  p.  76;  Adap- 
tation, p.  yy. 

Advantages 78 

Disadvantages,  p.  78;  Harvesting  seed,  p.  79. 
Collateral  Reading 80 

CHAPTER  V 

PERENNIAL    FORAGE   GRASSES 

I.    Orchard  Grass 

Name 81 

Description,  p.  81;   Seed,  p.  82;   Distribution,  p.  84; 
Adaptation,  p.  85 ;  Value,  p.  85 ;  Mixtures,  p.  87. 

Cultural  Methods 87 

Time  of  harvesting,  p.  87;  Harvesting  seed,  p.  88. 

II,    Meadozv  Fescue 

Relationships 88 

Adaptation  of  related  species,  p.  90;  Distribution,  p. 
91 ;  Adaptation,  p,  91 ;  Seed,  p.  92, 

III,    Smooth  Brome  Grass 

Relationships 93 

Description,  p,  94;  Adaptation,  p.  94;  Seeding,  p.  95; 
Time  of  harvesting,  p,  96;  Value,  p,  96. 

IV.    Bermuda  Grass 
Description     ..........      97 

Seed,  p.  98;  Adaptation,  p.  98;  Value,  p.  99. 


X  CONTENTS 

V.    Minor  Grasses 

PAGE 

Johnson  Grass .        -99 

Tall  oat  grass,  p.  lOo;  Velvet  grass,  p.  loi ;  Sweet 
vernal  grass,  p.  loi ;  Perennial  rye  grass,  p.  102; 
Italian  rye  grass,  p.  102  . 

.^racticums 103 

Equipment  for  the  study  of  grasses  and  other  forage 
crops,  p.  103;  Outline  for  discussion  of  grasses  and 
leguminous  forage  crops,  p.  104;  Outline  for  study 
•  of  vegetative  portion  of  grasses  in  the  field,  p.  106; 
Outline  for  study  of  mature  grasses,  p.  107;  Seed 
identification,  p.  107;  Seed  test,  p.  108. 
Collateral  Reading 109 


CHAPTER    VI 

ANNUAL    FORAGE   PLANTS 

Annual  Forage  Plants iii 

Millets,  p.  112;  Foxtail  millet,  p.  112;  Broom  corn  mil- 
let, p.  115;  Barnyard  millet,  p.  116;  Other  panicums, 
p.  117;  Pearl  millet,  p.  117;  Teosinte,  p.  118;  Salt- 
bushes,  p.  119. 

Collateral  Reading         .         ;         .         .         .         .         .         .119 


CHAPTER    VII 

LEGUMINOUS    FORACIE    CROPS 

I.    General  Characters 

Name 121 

Kinds 121 

Common  characters,  p.   122;  Variations,  p.   123;  Pol- 
lination, p.  124. 


CONTRNTS  XI 

II.    Acquircinciit  of  Nitrogen 

PAGE 

Acquirement  of  Free  Nitrogen 125 

Influence  of  root-tubercles  on  the  growth  of  plants, 
p.  126;  Character  of  the  tubercles,  p.  127;  Form  of 
the  organism,  p.  127;  Acquirement  of  nitrogen  with- 
out legumes,  p.  128;  Dissemination  of  the  bacteria 
by  natural  means,  p.  129;  Need  of  inoculation,  p. 
130;  Methods  of  inoculation,  p.  131;  Nitrifying  and 
denitrifying  organisms,  p.  132;  Effect  of  lime  on 
legumes,  p.  133. 

\^alue      .         .         .         .         , 134 

Collateral  Reading 138 


CHAPTER    VIII 

LEGUMINOUS    FORAGE    CROPS 

I.    Clovers 

Relationships .         .     140 

Number  and  distribution  of  species,  p.  140. 

II.    Red  Clover 

Name 141 

Roots,  p.  141;  Habit  of  growth  above  ground,  p.  142; 
Inflorescence,  p.  143;  Description  of  seed,  p.  144; 
Impurities  and  adulterations,  p.  145;  Germination 
and  viability,  p.  146;  Varieties,  p.  147;  Distribution, 
p.  148;  Duration,  p.  148;  Adaptation,  p.  148;  Ferti- 
lizers, p.  149;  Seeding,  p.  150;  Quantity  of  seed,  p. 
151 ;  Weeds,  p.  151 ;  Clover  sickness,  p.  151 ;  Fungous 
diseases,  p.  152;  Insect  enemies,  p.  153;  Harvesting 
hay,  p.  154;  Harvesting  seed,  p.  155;  Clover  hullers, 
p.  156;  Value,  p.  157;  Fertilizing  constituents  per 
acre,  p.  158;  Feeding  value  compared  with  timothy, 
p.  158. 

History 159 


Xll  CONTENTS 

III.    Mammoth  Clover 


PAG 


Characteristics 159 

Advantages,  p.   159;   Disadvantages,  p.   160;  Adapta- 
tion, p.  160. 
Collateral  Reading 161 

CHAPTER    IX 

LEGUMINOUS    FORAGE    CROPS 

I,  Alsikc  Clover 

Relationships 162 

Description,  p.  162;  Value,  p.  163;  Seed  and  seeding, 
p.  164. 
History .     165 

II.  White  Clover 

Description 165 

Distribution  and  adaptation,  p.  166;  Seed  and  seeding, 
p.  167. 

III.    Crimson  Clover 

Relationships 168 

Description,  p.  168;  Varieties,  p.  169;  Distribution  and 
adaptation,   p.    169;    Value,   p.    169;    Seed,   p.    170; 
Seeding,  p.  171. 
History 171 

IV.    Minor  Clovers 

Berseem 172 

Hungarian   clover,    p.    172;    Yellow    suckling    clover, 
p.  172. 
Collateral  Reading 173 

CHAPTER    X 

LEGUMINOUS   FORAGE    CROPS 

I.    Alfalfa 

Relationships 174 

Roots,  p.  174;  Habit  of  growth  above  ground,  p.  175; 
Inflorescence,   p.    177;   Seed,   p.    178;    Adulterations 


CONTENTS  Xlll 


PAGE 


and  impurities,  p.  179;  Dodder,  p.  179;  Germination 
and  viability,  p.  181  ;  Varieties,  p.  181 ;  Distribution, 
p.  182;  Adaptation,  p.  183. 

Conditions  Affecting  Success  with  Alfalfa  ....  184 
Treatment  of  the  soil,  p.  184;  Inoculation,  p.  186; 
After  treatment,  p.  187;  Irrigation,  p.  187;  Rota- 
tions, p.  188;  Quantity  of  seed,  p.  188;  Time  of 
seeding,  p.  189;  Method  of  seeding,  p.  189;  Nurse 
crop,  p.  190;  Weeds,  p.  191;  Fungous  diseases,  p. 
191;  Insects,  p.  192;  Animals,  p.  193;  Pocket 
gophers,  p.  193;  Spermophilus,  p.  193;  Prairie 
marmots,  p.  194;  Meadow  mouse,  p.  194. 

Time  of  Cutting  for  Hay 194 

Curing  alfalfa  hay,  p.  195;  Alfalfa  silage,  p.  195; 
Harvesting  alfalfa  seed,  p.  196;  Value,  p.  197; 
Feeding  value,  p.  198. 

History 199 


II.    Sand  Lucerne 

Sand  Lucerne 199 

Collateral  Reading 200 


CHAPTER    XI 

LEGUMINOUS    FORAGE    CROPS 

I.  Black  Medic 

Description 201 

Adaptation,  p.  202 ;  Seed,  p.  202 ;  Seeding,  p.  203. 

II.  Bur  Clovers 

Bur  Clovers 203 


XIV 


CONTKX'l'S 


PAGE 


III.    Japan  Clover 
Japan  Clover 204 

IV.    Vetches 

Kinds 205 

Description,   p.   206;    Adaptation   and   value,   p.   207; 
Culture,  p.  208. 

V.    Velvet  Bean 
Velvet  Bean .    209 

VI.    Florida  Beggar  Weed 
Florida  Beggar  Weed .211 

VII.    Lotus 

General  Characters 211 

Bird's-foot  trefoil,  p.  211;  Prairie  bird's-foot  trefoil, 
p.  212;  Square  pod  pea,  p.  212. 

VIII.    White  and  Yclloiv  Melilotus 
White  and  Yellow  Melilotus 213 

IX.    Sainfoin 
Sainfoin  or  Esparsette .         •     214 

X.    Kidney  Vetch 

Kidney   Vetch .     214 

Practicums 215 

Outline  for  discussion  of  leguminous  forage  crops, 
p.  215;  Leguminous  forage  plants,  p.  215;  Identifica- 
tion of  leguminous  forage  plants,  p.  216;  For  the 
identification  of  the  seeds  of  clovers  and  their  com- 
mon impurities  and  adulterants,  p.  217;  For  the 
identification  of  alfalfa  seed  and  its  common  im- 
purities and  adulterants,  p.  217;  Field  study  of  al- 
falfa, p.  217. 
Collateral  Reading .218 


CONTEXTS  XV 

CHAPTER    XII 

LEdUMES    FOR   SEED 

PAGE 

Kinds 219 

I.  Field  Beans 

Relationships 219 

Common   characters,   p.   221  ;   Variable   characters,   p. 

221  ;  Varieties,  p.  221 ;  Distribution  and  yield,  p.  222; 

Adaptation,  p.  223 ;  Planting,  p.  224;  Culture,  p.  224; 

Harvesting,  p.  225;  Diseases,  p.  226;  Insects,  p.  227; 

Threshing,  p.  228. 
History  and  Use 229 

II.  Field  Peas 

Relationships 230 

Description,   p.   230;   Varieties,   p.   231;    Distribution, 

p.  231 ;  Adaptation,  p.  2;^2;  Seeding,  p.  232;  Diseases 

and  insects,  p.  233 ;  Harvesting,  p.  234. 
Uses 234 

III.    Peanuts 

Description 234 

Composition,  p.  235;  Varieties,  p.  235;  Distribution 
and  yield,  p.  236;  Adaptation,  p.  237;  Soil  amend- 
ments, p.  237;  Planting,  p.  237;  Seed,  p.  238;  Culti- 
vation, p.  238;  Harvesting,  p.  239;  Uses,  p.  239. 

Practicum 240 

Field  beans,  p.  240. 
Collateral  Reading .        .    240 

CHAPTER    XIII 

LEGUMES   FOR   SEED 

Co  ci' peas 

Relationships 241 

Roots,  p.  241 ;  Common  characters,  p.  241 ;  Variable 
characters,  p.  242;  Variations  due  to  environment, 
p.  243;  Classification,  p.  244;  Varieties,  p.  245; 
Cross-fertilization,  p.  246;  Composition,  p.  247; 
Digestibility,  p.  247;  Distribution,  p.  248;  Adapta- 
tion, p.  248. 


Xvi  CONTENTS 


Inoculation 249 

Rotations,  p.  250;  Fertilizers,  p.  250;  Time  of  seeding, 
p.  251;  Quantity  of  seed,  p.  252;  Mixtures,  p.  252; 
Methods  of  seeding,  p.  253;  Cultivation,  p.  253; 
Insect  enemies,  p.  254;  Diseases,  p.  254;  Wilt,  p. 
255 ;  Root-knot,  p.  255. 
Collateral  Reading 2s6 

CHAPTER    XIV 

LEGUMES    FOR   SEED 

I.    Cozipcas 

Time  of  Harvesting 257 

Method  of  harvesting,  p.  259;  Curing  hay,  p.  260; 
Production  and  yield,  p.  261;  Use,  p.  262;  Value, 
p.  262;  Feeding  value,  p.  263;  Acquirement  of 
nitrogen,  p.  264;  Influence  on  other  crops,  p.  266; 
Method  of  utilizing  the  crop,  p.  267. 

History 268 

II.    Soy  Bean 

Description 268 

Varieties,   p.   269;    Distribution,   p.    270;    Adaptation, 
p.  271;  Seeding,  p.  2y2\  Cultivation,  p.  2^2  \  Insect 
and    other    enemies,    p.    273 ;    Harvesting,    p.    273 ; 
Value,  p.  273. 
Collateral  Reading 274 

CHAPTER   XV 

ROOT   CROPS 

I.   Beets 

Name 275 

Relationships 275 

Types  of  the  beet,  p.  276;  Description  of  the  beet,  p. 
276;  Comparison  between  sugar  beets  and  mangel- 


CONTENTS  XVU 


PAGE 


wurzels,  p.  2^^ ;  Varieties,  p.  279 ;  Adaptation,  p.  280 ; 
Irrigation,  p.  281 ;  Rotation,  p.  281 ;  Fungous  dis- 
eases, p.  282;  Insects,  p.  282;  Preparation  of  the 
soil,  p.  282 ;  Seeding,  p.  283 ;  Distance  apart  of  rows, 
p.  284;  Thinning,  p.  284;  Cultivation,  p.  285;  Har- 
vesting, p.  285;  Yields,  p.  286;  Feeding,  p.  286; 
Production  of  seed,  p.  287. 
History 288 

II.    Turnips,  Rutabagas,  Kohlrabi  and  Cabbages 

Types 289 

Description,  p.  290 :  Comparison  of  turnips  and  rutaba- 
gas, p.  290;  Varieties,  p.  291;  Adaptation,  p.  291; 
Cultural  methods,  p.  292;  Seeding,  p.  292;  Enemies, 
p.  293;  Yields,  p.  294;  Value,  p.  294. 
Production 295 

III.    Rape 

Description  and  Varieties 295 

Adaptation  and  cultivation,  p.  296;  Value,  p.  297. 

IV.    Carrot 
Carrot 298 

Adaptation,  p.  299;  Seeding,  p.  299;  Cultural  methods, 
p.  299;  Yield,  p.  299. 

V.   Minor  Root  Crops 

Parsnips 300 

Cassava 300 

Chinese  Yam 300 

Chufa 300 

Jerusalem  Artichoke 301 

Practicums 301 

Study  of  characters  of  roots,  p.  301 ;  Increase  of  dry 
matter  in  mangel-wurzels  by  selection,  p.  302;  De- 
termination  of  specific  gravity  of   root  and   juice, 
p.  302. 
Collateral  Reading 303 


XVIU  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   XVI 

FIBER   CROPS 

Classification  and  Production 

PAGE 

Materials  for  Fibers .         -     2P\ 

Classification  according  to  use,  p.  305 ;  Classification 
according  to  source,  p.  306;  Classification  according 
to  spinning  units,  p.  306;  Identification  of  fibers,  p. 
307;  Number  of  fiber  plants,  p.  308;  Production, 
p.  308. 

Practicums 309 

Identification  of  fibers,  p.  309;  Microscopic  examina- 
tion of  fibers,  p.  309;  V^alue  of  fibers  as  determined 
by  action  of  reagents,  p.  310. 

Collateral  Reading         .         .         .        .         .        .        .        .310 

CHAPTER    XVII 

FIBER    CROPS 

Cotton 

Structure  and  Composition •     3if 

Relationships  .         .        .         .         .         .         .         .         -31^ 

Roots,  p.  311;  Vegetative  portion,  p.  312;  Flowers,  p 
313;  Bolls,  p.  314;  Seed,  p.  316;  Lint,  p.  317; 
Structure  of  fiber,  p.  320;  Qualities  of  lint,  p.  321: 
Linters,  p.  321 ;  Proportion  of  parts,  p.  321 ;  Com- 
position, p.  322;  Ash,  p.  323. 
Collateral  Reading 324 

CHAPTER   XVIII 

FIBER    CROPS 

Cotton 
Varieties  and  Improvement  .         .         .         ...         .     325 

Species .         -325 

American  upland  cotton,  p.  2)-^\  India  cotton,  p.  326; 


CONTENTS  XIX 


Sea  island  cotton,  p.  326;  Egyptian  cotton,  p.  327; 
Peruvian  cotton,  p.  328;  Classification  of  varieties, 
p.  328;  Standard  and  recommended  varieties,  p.  331 ; 
Desirable  variety  characters,  p.  333. 

Crossing 334 

Seed  selection,  p.  335 ;  Improvement  of  cotton,  p.  335 ; 
Score  card,  p.  337;  Scale  of  qualities,  p.  337;  In- 
fluence of  environment,  p.  I2,y. 

Collateral  Reading 339 

CHAPTER   XIX  . 

FIBER    CROPS 

Cotton 

Climate  and  Soils 340 

Distribution 340 

Temperature,  p.  340;  Rainfall,  p.  342. 

Soils 342 

Soils  for  sea  island  cotton,  p.  343;  Deterioration  of 
cotton  lands,  p.  343;  Rotation,  p.  344;  Influence  of 
commercial  fertilizers,  p.  346 ;  Carriers  of  fertilizing 
ingredients,  p.  346;  Composting,  p.  347;  Kinds  and 
quantities  of  commercial  fertilizers,  p.  348;  Methods 
of  applying  commercial  fertilizers,  p.  349. 
Collateral  Reading 350 

CHAPTER    XX 

FIBER    CROPS 

Cotton 

Cultural  Methods 351 

Seasons  of  Cultural  Operations 351 

Preparing  the  seed-bed,  p.  3^2;  Kind  of  seed,  p.  353; 
Quantity  of  seed,  p.  354;  Distance,  p.  355;  Cultiva- 
tion, p.  356;  Topping,  p.  357;  Picking,  p.  357. 


XX  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Insects 358 

Mexican  cotton-boll  weevil,  p.  359;  Cotton-boll  worm, 
p.  360;  Cotton  worm,  p.  360. 

Fungous   Diseases 361 

Diseases,  p.  361 ;  Root  knot,  p.  362 ;  Cotton  wilt,  p. 
362 ;  Black  rust,  p.  363 ;  Anthracnose,  p.  363. 
Collateral  Reading 363 

CHAPTER    XXI 

FIBER    CROPS 

Cotton 

Production  and  Marketing 364 

Cotton  Crop  of  the  World 364 

Cotton  in  the  United  States,  p.  364;  Center  of  cotton 
production,  p.  366;  Production  per  population,  p. 
366;  Exports  of  cotton,  p.  367;  Imports  of  cotton, 
p.  368;  Gins,  p.  369;  Bales,  p.  370;  Presses,  p.  370; 
Ginning,  p.  371. 

Marketing 372 

Commercial  grades,  p.  373 ;  Yield,  p.  374 ;  Price,  p.  375. 
Collateral  Reading 375 

CHAPTER    XXII 

FIBER    CROPS 

Cotton 

Uses  and  History 376 

Lint 376 

Manufactories,  p.  377;  Seed,  p.  378;  Oil,  p.  379;  Cot- 
ton-seed meal,  p.  381;  Hulls,  p.  383;  Stalks,  p.  383. 

History 384 

Practicums 384 

Study  of  cotton  plant  in  field,  p.  384;  Study  of  cotton 
in  the  laboratory,  p.  385 ;  Crossing  cotton,  p.  386. 
Collateral  Reading 386 


CONTENTS  xxi 

« 

CHAPTER    XXIII 

FIBER    CROPS 

387 


PAGE 

Flax 


Relationships,  p.  387;  Description,  p.  387;  Flax  seed, 
p.  387;  Flax  fiber,  p.  389;  Adaptation,  p.  390;  Dis- 
eases, p.  391  ;  Cultural  methods,  p.  391 ;  Production, 
p.  393;  History,  p.  394. 

Hemp 394 

Jute 396 

Ramie 397 

Manila  Fiber 397 

Sisal 399 

Maguey 400 

Jstle 401 

New  Zealand  Hemp 401 

Collateral  Reading 402 


PERENNIAL  FORAGE  GRASSES 

I.     CHARACTERS    AND    HABITS 

1.  Designation. — Under  the  above  designation  will  occur  a 
discussion  of  certain  perennial  species  of  the  grass  family 
{Gramineae)  which  are  cultivated  chiefly  for  hay,  pasture,  and 
lawns,  although  sometimes  they  also  may  be  used  for  holding 
embankments,  to  prevent  the  shifting  of  sandy  soils  by  the  wind, 
or  to  prevent  the  erosion  of  soils  through  rains.  Those  annual 
species  of  the  grass  family  used  for  forage  are  discussed  else- 
where in  this  volume  under  the  title  of  "Annual  Forage 
Plants,"  while  the  cereals  are  treated  in  a  separate  volume/ 
The  grasses  which  are  cultivated  exclusively  for  ornamental 
purpose  will  not  be  described.  The  use  of  the  term  grass  to 
apply  to  plants  other  than  true  grasses,  although  used  for  the 
same  purpose,  will  be  avoided. 

2.  Relationships. — The  grass  family  (Gramineae)  is  an  im- 
portant and  rather  isolated  group  of  plants,  being  closely 
related  only  to  the  sedges  from  which  it  differs  in  important 
particulars.  Of  the  1,380  native  and  introduced  species  of 
grasses  in  the  United  States,  the  seeds  of  about  50  species 
have  entered  into  commerce  and  may  therefore  be  considered 
cultivated  species.  (C.  A.  8)  The  most  important  perennial 
forage  grasses  in  America  belong  to  two  of  the  13  tribes  of 
the  grass  family — namely,  Agrostideae  and  Festuceae.  To  the 
former  belong  timothy,  redtop,  and  meadow  foxtail;  while  to 
the    latter   belong   orchard    grass,   the    fescues,    smooth   brome 

^  "The  Cereals  in  America." 


THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


The  Relationship  of  the   Commonly  Cultivated  Perennial 
Forage  Grasses  with  Some  of  the  Less  Common  Species 


Family       Tribe 


Phalarideae 


Agrostideae 


Aveneae 


Sub-tribe 


Genus 
Phalaris 

ithoxanthum 


!  Phalaris 
Anthoxa 


Stipeae 


Phleoideae 


Euagresteae 


Stipa 

Oryzopsis 

Muhlenbergia 

Phleum 
Alopecurus 

Agrostis 
Calamagrostis 


r  Holcus 

Deschampsia 
i  Avena 

Arrhenatherum 

Danthonia 


Festuceae 


'Eragrosteae      <  Koeleria 


Briza 
Dactylis 
Cynosurus 
Poa 


Eufestuceae 


Brachypo- 
dieae 


Chlorideae 


Glyceria 
Festuca 

\  Bromus 

i  Brachypodium 

Capriola 
Bouteloua 

Bulbilis 


Cultivated  or 
Useful  Forms 

Canary    grass 

Reed  grass 

Sweet    vernal    grass 

Bunch   grass 
Bunch   grass 


Timothy 
Meadow   foxtail 


Redtop 
Blue  joint 


Velvet   grass 

Occurs  on  high  plains 

Common  oat 

Tall  oat  grass 

Valuable  for  grazing 
in  mountains  of 
North  Carolina  and 
Tennessee 


Orchard  grass 
Crested  dog's  tail 
Meadow     grass,     blue 
grass 

Fescues 

Smooth  brome  grass 


Bermuda  grass 
Mesquite     or     grama 

grass 
Buffalo  grass 


PERENNIAf.    lY^RAC.R    GRASSES  3 

grass,  and  many  species  of  the  genus  Poa,  to  which  Kentucky 
blue  grass  belongs.  These  two  tribes  may  be  distinguished 
from  each  other  by  the  fact  that  the  spikelets  in  the  cultivated 
species  of  the  former  are  almost  always  one-flowered,  while 
those  of  the  latter  are  two — or  more — flowered.  In  the  former, 
the  flowering  glume  is  thin  or  hyaline  and  not  longer  than  the 
outer  glumes;  while  in  the  latter,  it  is  thick  and  chartaceous 
and  is  no  longer  than  the  outer  glumes.  For  classification  of 
important  species,  see  opposite  page. 

3.  Duration. — While  some  annuals  of  the  grass  family  are 
grown  and  harvested  for  forage — as  millet,  oats,  barley,  and 
maize — those  grasses  which  we  use  for  meadows  and  pastures 
are  perennial,  this  character  being  an  essential  quality.  All 
perennial  grasses  increase  by  new  culms  arising  from  the 
nodes,  usually  the  lower  ones,  of  the  culm  in  more  or  less  chain- 
like succession.  The  new  culms  may  be  sessile,  when  the 
process  is  similar  to  that  of  stooling  in  the  cereal  grasses;  but 
in  perennial  grasses  more  commonly  underground  or  above 
ground  stolons  arise  from  the  underground  or  above  ground 
nodes.  Each  stolon  may  give  rise  to  one  or  more  seed-bearing 
culms,  each  with  an  independent  root  system.  The  latter  in 
turn  give  rise  to  other  stolons  and  culms. 

The  part  arising  from  the  node  is  of  course  a  branch  of 
the  culm  from  which  it  grows ;  but  it  soon  becomes  a  more  or 
less  independent  plant  by  the  roots  which  arise  from  a  node 
of  the  branch  more  or  less  remote  from  the  culm,  or  else  in 
the  case  of  rhizomes  branches  in  turn  arise  from  their  nodes, 
which  become  seed-bearing  culms.  The  point  to  note  is  that 
the  habit  of  the  plant,  whether  creeping  or  tufted,  is  dependent 
upon  the  distance  the  roots  of  the  secondary  culms  are  from 
those  of  the  primary  culm.  The  part  between  the  two  culms 
is  called  a  stolon,  whether  occurring  above,  on,  or  underground, 
and  when  such  part  exists  the  plant  is  called  stoloniferous. 
When  the   stolon  is   underground  the  leaves  become   modified 


4  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

into  brown  or  colorless  scales  and  the  nodes  are  less  pro- 
nounced, when  it  is  known  as  a  rhizome  or  rootstock. 

Another  difference  may  also  be  noted  in  the  mode  of  growth. 
The  branch  arising  at  a  node  must  of  necessity  arise  in  the 
axil  of  the  leaf.  The  branch  growls  up  within  the  leaf  sheath, 
intravaginal,  or  it  may  bore  its  way  through  the  base  of  the 
leaf  which  encloses  it,  extravaginal.  Those  plants  which  are 
tufted — such  as  orchard  grass  and  perennial  rye  grass — belong 
to  the  former  class.  All  strongly  creeping  plants — such  as 
Kentucky  blue  grass,  redtop,  meadow  foxtail,  and  smooth  brome 
grass — belong  to  the  latter.  In  timothy  and  meadow  fescue 
the  branches  arise  within  the  axil  of  the  leaf  sheath  and  sub- 
sequently break  through.  Plants  that  are  strongly  stoloniferous 
produce  the  densest  sod  and  therefore  the  best  pasture.  On 
the  other  hand,  this  density  of  sod  seems  to  interfere  with  the 
production  of  culms,  and  hence  strongly  stoloniferous  plants 
in  a  few  years  produce  small  yields  of  hay. 

A  single  timothy  seedling  at  the  Cornell  Station  produced 
86  seed-bearing  culms  during  the  first  summer  of  its  growth 
and  over  250  seed-bearing  culms  during  the  second  summer. 
Fraser  has  shown  that  in  timothy  each  corm  and  its  accom- 
panying roots  die  after  producing  a  single  seed-bearing  culm. 
Grasses  may,  therefore,  be  kept  alive  as  well  as  spread,  by 
asexual  or  vegetative  reproduction.  Plants  possessing  this  habit 
are  counted  by  botanists  as  perennial ;  but  it  is  evident  that 
they  are  perennial  in  a  different  sense  from  that  of  a  red  clover 
plant,  an  alfalfa  plant  or  a  tree. 

If  we  look  upon  each  portion  of  a  plant  arising  from  a  node 
and  possessing  separate  roots  as  an  individual,  we  may  then 
say  that  the  individual  timothy  plant  does  not,  probably,  produce 
fruit  but  once.  It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  the  duration  of 
timothy  is  dependent  upon  those  conditions  which  influence 
vegetative  reproduction.  Whether  this  is  true  of  all  grass 
plants  it  is  perhaps  not  possible  to  state  absolutely,  but  it  seems 


PERENNIAL    J-ORAGE    GRASSES 


Fig.  1—1,  Fibrous  roots;  4.  culm;  5.  node;  6.  leaf.  Fig.  2—2.  Rhizome;  4.  culm;  6. 
blade  of  leaf;  7,  ligule;  9.  scales  of  the  rhizome.  Fig.  3  —  1.  Root  fibers;  3.  bulbous 
base  of  culm;  4.  culm;  5.  sheath;  6.  blade.  Fig.  4-2.  Scaly  rhizomes;  4.  node;  6. 
blade;  7.  ligule;  9.  scales  of  the  rhizome.  Fig.  5-1.  Fibrous  roots;  2.  creeping 
rhizome;  4.  culm;  5.  sheath;  6.  blade;  7.  culm.  8.  nodes. 
(After  Vasey) 


6  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

probable  that  all  plants  of  the  grass   family  are  monocarpic— 
that  is,  produce  seed  but  once. 

The  duration  of  pastures  and  meadows  may  be  influenced 
also  by  the  opportunity  which  exists  for  grasses  to  produce 
seed  freely.  Pastures  which  are  pastured  too  heavily  often 
decrease  in  the  thickness  of  the  sod.  It  is  ?.  matter  of  observa- 
tion that  the  duration  of  timothy  meadows  is  shorter  than 
formerly.  This  may  be  due  to  the  practise  of  cutting  timothy 
before  the  seed  has  formed,  thus  preventing  re-seeding;  or  may 
be  due  to  conditions  less  favorable  to  vegetative  reproduction. 

4.  Common  Characters. — Generally  speaking,  the  cultivated 
grasses  have  the  characters  common  to  the  grass  family — 
namely,  fibrous  roots,  jointed  stems  (nodes  and  internodes), 
two-ranked  leaves  consisting  of  sheath,  blade,  ligule,  and 
auricle,  one  leaf  arising  from  each  node.  Flowers  are  borne 
in  spikelets,  ovulary  one-seeded,  styles  two,  anthers  usually 
three.     (C.  A.  52-58) 

The  cultivated  grasses  have  certain  characters  common  to 
each  other  but  not  common  to  all  members  of  the  grass  family. 
They  are  perennial,  grow  during  a  considerable  period  of  the 
year,  produce  but  a  small  portion  of  their  weight  in  seed  which 
has  little  food  value,  have  relatively  a  large  amount  of  leaves 
to  culms.  The  culms  are  rather  small  with  relatively  heavy 
walls.  In  grasses  of  economic  value  the  surface  of  the  leaves 
and  stems  is  usually  smooth.  The  essential  characters  which 
make  grasses  of  economic  value  are  yield,  palatability,  health- 
fulness,  duration,  prolificacy,  and  ease  of  curing. 

5.  Growing  Point  of  Leaf. — The  value  of  the  grasses  for 
grazing  consists  in  a  considerable  measure  in  the  large  number 
of  basal  leaves  and  the  manner  of  growth  of  the  leaf  blade. 
The  growing  point,  which  can  usually  be  recognized  by  its 
lighter  color,  is  at  the  base  of  the  blade.     The  upper  portion 


PERENNIAL   FOR^VGE   GRASSES 


The  numbers  in  each  of  the  figures  are  as  follows-  1 .  Sheath;  2.  blade;  3.  culm;  4.  nof^.e 
or  joint;  5.  ligule      The  ligule  is  best  shown  in  the  lower  right  hand  figure 
<  After  Vasey) 


8  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

of  the  leaf  blade  may,  therefore,  be  removed  without  injuring 
the  growing  part. 

6.  Variations. — While  possessing  certain  characters  in  com- 
mon, the  different  species  of  grasses  not  only  vary  widely  from 
each  other  in  habits  of  growth  and  minor  botanical  characters, 
but  different  individuals  of  the  same  species  also  vary  widely; 
although  less  advantage  has  been  taken  of  this  fact  to  produce 
strains  or  varieties  than  in  the  case  of  the  cereals.  (53) 
(C.  A.  37)  Grasses  vary  in  the  depth  of  their  root  growth, 
smooth  brome  grass  being  deep-rooted  and  able  to  withstand 
drought;  while  Kentucky  blue  grass  is  shallow-rooted  and 
liable  to  injury  during  dry  weather, — which  makes  them  adapted 
to  different  portions  of  the  United  States. 

The  strongly  stoloniferous  habit  of  Kentucky  blue  grass,  red- 
top,  and  brome  grass  causes  them  to  produce  dense,  even  sod; 
while  orchard  grass  grows  in  bunches  and  does  not  make  an 
even  sod.  Timothy  is  somewhat  variable  in  its  stoloniferous 
habit,  not  only  producing  a  less  dense  sod,  but  making  its 
duration  less  certain.  (50)  In  some  cases  the  culms  are 
erect,  some  decumbent,  others  are  decumbent  at  the  base  only, 
while  still  others  are  kneed.  The  proportion  of  basal  leaves 
to  culm  leaves,  as  well  as  the  height  of  culm  and  its  proportion 
as  compared  with  the  leaves,  influences  the  yield  and  the 
quality  of  the  hay. 

Certain  characters  serve  to  distinguish  the  grasses  when  not 
in  flower.  These  are  the  size  and  thickness  of  the  leaf  blade, 
size  and  shape  of  the  ligule,  and  the  color  of  the  basal  leaf 
sheath.  When  in  flower,  the  inflorescence  is  of  course  the 
chief  method  of  distinguishing  species.  The  inflorescence  may 
be  spike-like — as  in  the  case  of  timothy  and  meadow  foxtail,  or 
a  panicle — as  in  the  case  of  redtop  and  Kentucky  blue  grass. 
Grasses  are  further  distinguished  by  the  number  of  flowers  to 
a  spikelet,  the  relative  lengths  of  outer  glumes,  flowering  glume, 


PERENNIAL   FORAGE   GRASSES 


1.  A  dense  spike,  Alopecums  pratensis;  2.  An  elongated,  one-sided  spike,  Paspalum 
dilatatum;  3.  Spike,  Hordeum  pratense;  4.  Spike,  Agropyrum  repens;  5.  Spike,  Elymus 
condensatus;  6.  Spike,  Bouteloua  polystachya;  7.  Spike,  Bouteloua  oligostachya; 
8.  Panicle,  Panicum  crus-galli;  9.  Panicle,  Agwstis exarata;  10.  Panicle,  Koeleria 
cr'stata;  11.  Panicle,  Distichlis  man'tma;  12.  Panicle,  Bromus  secalinus;  13.  Panicle, 
Hierochloa  boreahs;  14.  Panicle,  Poa pratensis:  15.  Panicle,  Dactylis glomet-ata. 
(After  Vasey) 


10  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

and  palea,  together  with  more  minute  characters.     These  will 
be  found  under  the  description  of  the  individual  grasses. 

7.  Healthfulness. — As  pasture,  all  the  cultivated  grasses  are 
equally  healthful.  There  is  not  known  to  be  any  difference  in 
the  healthfulness  of  the  different  cultivated  grasses,  except 
such  as  occurs  through  curing.  If  the  hay  is  fermented  or 
dusty,  it  is  objectionable — especially  for  horses.  Certain  legumes, 
however — such  as  alfalfa  and  red  clover — cause  cattle  to  bloat, 
especially  if  turned  into  a  field  when  there  is  a  heavy  dew. 
Much  less  danger  exists  if  the  cattle  are  turned  into  the  field 
when  there  is  no  dew  or  if  they  are  left  in  the  field  continuously. 
Mixtures  of  grasses  with  either  alfalfa  or  clover  make  them 
comparatively  safe.  Certain  wild  grasses — such  as  wild  barley 
and  darnel — are  quite  injurious.  Alsike  clover  has  been  reported 
to  be  injurious  sometimes.     (178) 

8.  Palatability. — Although  cultivated  grasses  vary  little  in 
healthfulness,  they  do  vary  considerably  in  palatability.  Tim- 
othy is  so  highly  prized  that  a  small  admixture  of  other  cul- 
tivated grasses  reduces  the  commercial  grade.  In  practise 
this  admixture  is  likely  to  be  redtop,  which  either  as  hay  or 
pasture  is  not  as  well  liked  by  domestic  animals  as  timothy. 
Kentucky  blue  grasr  is  more  palatable  than  Canadian  blue  grass 
or  wire  grass  for  pasture.  For  pasture,  Kentucky  blue  grass, 
meadow  foxtail,  meadow  fescue,  and  smooth  brome  grass  excel 
in  palatability  redtop,  orchard  grass,  and  timothy.  Tall  oat 
grass  and  velvet  grass  are  examples  of  grasses  that  are  prac- 
tically valueless  on  account  of  lack  of  palatability.  Palatability 
also  varies  somewhat  with  the  kind  of  animal.  Sheep  are  said 
to  be  fond  of  orchard  grass.  They  graze  it  close.  The  tramp- 
ing keeps  the  grass  from  growing  in  bunches.  Palatability  may 
vary  with  soil  and  climate.  Tall  oat  grass,  which,  in  most 
parts  of  the  United  States,  is  considered  unpalatable,  is  a  highly 
prized  grass  in  France.     It  has  been  suggested  that  this  may 


PERENNIAL    FORAGE   GRASSES 


II 


Forms  of  spikelets  closed  and  opened.  Fig.  1,  Agrostis  vulgaris;  Fig.  2.  Agrostis 
exarata;  Fig.  3.  Sporobolus  indicus;  Fig.  4.  An  opened  spikelet  of  Calamagrostis 
canadensis;  Fig.  5.  Fhleum  pratense;  Fig.  6.  Muhlenbergia  diffusa;  Fig.  7.  Pas- 
palum  dilatatum;  Fig.  8.  Paspalum  laede;  Fig.  9.  A  spikelet  of  AHstida  purpurea; 
Fig.  10.  Setaria  setosa;  Fig.  11.  Seiaria  glauca;  Fig.  12.  Alopecurus  pratensis; 
Fig.  13.  Holcus  lanatus;  Fig.  14,  A  spikelet  of  Deschampsia  caespitosa  and  one  of 
its  flowers;  Fig.  15.  A  spikelet  of  Poa  serotina  and  one  of  its  flowers;  Fig.  1  6.  A  spike- 
let of  Bromus  erectus  and  one  of  its  flowers;  Fig.  1  7.  The  staminate  and  pistillate  spike- 
lets  of  Buchloe  dactyloides,  the  former  both  closed  and  opened, 
(After  Vasey) 


12  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

be  due  to  an   abundance  of   some  plant   food,   such   as   phos- 
phoric acid. 

9.  Prolificacy. — An  essential  feature  of  a  cultivated  grass  is 
that  seed  for  sowing  may  be  secured  at  a  reasonable  cost.  This 
depends  upon  the  number  of  seeds  produced  per  plant,  the 
usual  percentage  of  germination,  cost  of  harvesting  and 
preparing  for  market,  and  the  number  of  plants  required  per 
unit  of  area  to  secure  a  satisfactory  stand.  One  of  the  most 
valuable  characteristics  of  timothy  is  the  fact  that  the  seed 
required  to  sow  an  acre  can  be  purchased  for  less  than  any 
other  cultivated  grass,  because  it  produces  seed  abundantly, 
has  high  germinating  power,  is  easily  harvested  and  prepared 
for  market,  and  a  relatively  small  number  of  plants  is  required 
to  produce  a  good  stand.  On  the  other  hand,  Kentucky  blue 
grass  seed  is  more  difficult  to  harvest,  greater  care  is  required 
in  preparing  for  market,  and  its  power  of  germination  as  it 
occurs  in  commerce  is  much  less. 

The  cultivation  of  certain  grasses  and  clovers  is  practically 
prohibited  because  of  the  lack  of  prolificacy — as,  for  example, 
big  blue  stem  (Andropogon  provincialis  Lam.),  reed  grass, 
zigzag  clover,  and  Trifolium  pannonicum  Jacq.  This  latter  is 
a  perennial  clover  of  apparently  high  value,  were  it  not  for 
the  difficulty  of  securing  seed. 

10.  Number  of  Plants  Per  Acre. — At  the  Cornell  Station  sin- 
gle plants  of  timothy  when  grown  alone  have  given  at  a  single 
cutting  1.25  pounds  of  well  cured  hay.  Only  3,200  such  plants 
would  be  required  per  acre  to  produce  2  tons  of  hay,  or  one 
plant  to  about  every  14  square  feet.  There  was  obtained  from 
3,600  two-year-old  plants  at  the  Cornell  Station  a  ton  of  hay, 
this  being  the  number  left  from  7,200  plants  on  an  acre,  each 
30. inches  apart.  When  the  minimum  amount  of  timothy  seed 
is  sown  per  acre — namely,  about  9  pounds — about  10,000,000 
seeds  are  sown,  or  over  200  per  square  foot.     Grass  mixtures 


PERENNIAL   FORAGE   GRASSES  1 3 

are  sometimes  prepared  on  the  basis  of  20,000,000  viable  seeds 
per  acre. 

There  are  three  sources  of  loss.  Some  seeds  never  germinate, 
some  plants  die  from  lack  of  suitable  conditions — as,  for  ex- 
ample, through  shallow  sowing,  and  some  plants  are  crowded 
out  by  their  more  vigorous  neighbors.  If  possible,  it  would  be 
desirable  to  eliminate  the  first  two  sources  of  loss;  but  in  so 
far  as  the  plants  fail  to  survive  because  they  are  less  vigorous 
pr  less  hardy  than  their  neighbors,  the  result  is  beneficial. 
While  in  ordinary  practise  loss  usually,  perhaps,  occurs  both 
from  lack  of  number  of  plants  and  lack  of  uniformity  of  stand, 
it  is  possible  that  with  certain  grasses  having  a  strongly  stolon- 
iferous  habit  too  great  crowding  may  occur.  It  has  been 
noticed  that  in  certain  regions  some  grasses — such  as  smooth 
brome  grass — produce  hay  abundantly  for  two  or  three  years 
after  seeding,  but  as  a  dense  sod  forms  the  production  of  hay 
becomes  less. 

11.  Composition. — The  analyses  of  the  hay  of  perennial  forage 
grasses  do  not  indicate  striking  differences  in  the  composition 
of  different  species.  The  composition  of  the  hay  of  the  same 
species  at  different  stages  of  maturity  may  vary  as  greatly  as 
that  of  different  species;  so  that  the  average  composition  as 
given  in  the  table  below  may  be  due  as  much  to  the  stage  of 
maturity  and  the  methods  of  curing  and  handling  as  to  any 
inherent  differences  in  the  grasses.  Naturally,  therefore, 
analyses  of  different  species  have  been  of  little  value  in  de- 
termining their  feeding  value.  The  feeding  value  depends 
largely  on  the  palatability  and  freedom  from  injurious  effects. 
Palatability  depends  largely  on  aroma,  flavor,  smoothness  of 
parts,  and  freedom  from  dust.  The  table  on  page  14  gives  Amer- 
ican analyses  of  the  common  and  some  less  common  grasses. 

Compared  with  the  grains  and  other  concentrated  foods,  the 
hay  of  perennial  forage  grasses  is  low  in  protein  and  fat  and 


14  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

Table  Giving  American  Analyses  of  Some  Common  Grasses 


Name   of  plant 

Number 
of  an- 
alyses 

Water 

Ash 

Protein 
Nx  6.25 

Crude 
fiber 

Nitro- 
gen-free 
extract 

Fat 

Bermuda    grass 

14.3 

7.8 

11.5 

20.0 

45.1 

1.3 

Blue   joint 

6.9 

5.5 

11.2 

37.2 

35.8 

3.4 

Canada  blue  grass 

14.3 

4.5 

7.6 

21.7 

49.0 

2.9 

Couch  grass    . 

5 

14.3 

6.0 

8.8 

24.8 

43.1 

3.0 

Crab   grass 

•• 

14.3 

10.8 

8.4 

27.5 

36.6 

2.4 

Fowl  meadow  grass 

14.3 

3.6 

5.4 

17.9 

56.4 

2.4 

Gama  grass     . 

14.3 

5.3 

7.4 

22.7 

48.3 

2.0 

Hungarian  grass     . 

12 

7.7 

6.0 

7.5 

27.7 

49.0 

2.1 

Italian  rye  grass     . 

9.3 

6.7 

8.8 

28.4 

44.9 

1.9 

Johnson  grass 

•• 

14.3 

6.9 

10.9 

21.5 

44.8 

2.4 

Kentucky  blue  grass 

4 

24.4 

7.0 

6.3 

24.5 

34.2 

3.6 

Meadow   fescue 

14.3 

7.8 

9.2 

20.8 

45.1 

2.8 

Meadow    foxtail 

6.6 

9.8 

9.3 

32.3 

38.9 

3.1 

Orchard   grass 

10 

9.9 

6.0 

8.1 

32.4 

41.0 

2.6 

Perennial  rye  grass 

•• 

14.3 

5.2 

7.6 

35.7 

54.8 

2.4 

Redtop     . 

9 

8.9 

5.2 

7.9 

28.6 

47.4 

1.9 

Schrader's  brome  grass 

14.3 

8.4 

11.7 

17.6 

44.9 

3.1 

Sheep's  fescue 

7.4 

6.8 

6.0 

33.1 

43.9 

2.8 

Smooth  brome  grass 

6.2 

7.6 

10.1 

38.7 

35.5 

1.9 

Sweet  vernal  grass 

•• 

14.3 

5.0 

9.9 

21.9 

46.4 

2.5 

Tall  meadow  oat  grass 

10.7 

5.0 

8.7 

27.8 

44.5 

3.3 

Texas  blue  grass     . 

14.3 

10.0 

9.1 

27.3 

36.1 

Z.2 

Timothy 

68 

13.2 

4.4 

5.9 

29.0 

45.0 

2.5 

high  in  crude  fiber.  Neither  the  digestible  fat  (ether  extract) 
nor  the  digestible  nitrogen-free  extract  in  hay  is  as  valuable 
for  feeding  purposes  as  equal  quantities  in  the  grains.  Com- 
pared with  the  leguminous  forage  plants,  the  hay  of  grasses 
is  much  lower  in  protein,  but  otherwise  does  not  differ  greatly 
except  in  so  far  as  is  made  necessary  through  the  lower 
protein  content. 


PERENNIAL   FORAGE   GRASSES  1 5 

12.  Digestibility. — Comparatively  few  digestion  experiments 
have  been  made  with  the  hay  of  the  perennial  forage  grasses, 
but  it  is  generally  conceded  that  the  coefficient  of  digestion 
for  one  species  of  grass  will  apply  fairly  to  another  if  both 
are  harvested  at  proper  stages  of  maturity  and  cured  in  a 
similar  manner.  In  a  general  way,  75  to  90  per  cent,  of  the 
dry  matter  of  grains  and  other  concentrates  is  digested  by 
ruminants,  50  to  65  per  cent,  of  the  hay  of  grasses  and  legumes, 
and  40  to  50  per  cent,  of  the  straw  of  cereals. 

The  net  nutritive  value  of  hay  is  much  less  than  that  of 
grains,  not  only  because  it  contains  less  percentage  of  digestible 
nutrients,  but  also  because  a  larger  proportion  of  the  energy 
is  used  in  masticating  and  digesting  the  hay.  The  energy 
being  thus  used  is  not  available  for  the  production  of  work, 
flesh,  or  milk.  The  energy  of  mastication  and  digestion  mani- 
fests itself  in  heat,  however,  and  helps  to  keep  the  animal 
warm.  Hay  and  straw  may,  therefore,  be  used  in  wintering 
mature  animals  when  they  would  not  be  useful  when  used  alone 
for  work  or  for  growing  animals  or  for  the  production  of  milk. 
As  illustrating  the  differences  in  net  nutritive  value  of  different 
foods  when  fed  to  horses,  the  trials  by  Zuntz  and  Hagermann, 
of  Germany,  are  given  on  the  next  page.^ 

II.     SEEDS    AND    MIXTURES 

13.  Quality  of  Seed. — No  factor,  perhaps,  has  a  greater  influ- 
ence on  the  economic  use  of  forage  plants,  whether  grasses  or 
legumes,  than  the  quantity  and  the  quality  of  the  seed  produced. 
Apart  from  its  hereditary  power,  the  quality  of  seed  is  de- 
termined by  the  purity,  the  germinating  power,  the  size  of  the 
seed,  and  the  weight  per  bushel.  The  higher  the  purity, 
germination  and  weight  per  bushel,  and  the  larger  the  grain, 
the  more  valuable  the   seed.     In  some  instances — as.   for  ex- 


iLandw.  Jahrb.,  27   (1898),  No.  3,  pp.  440. 


l6  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

Table  Showing  True  Nutritive  Value  of  Different  Feeding  Stuffs 


Labor    ex- 

pended in 

True  nutritive 

Dry 
matter 

Total   di- 

chewing  and 

value    ni 

Feeding   stuffs 

gestible 

digestion     in 

terms  of 

nutrients 

terms  of 
nutrients 

nutrients 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Medium    hay     (av- 

erage   quality)     . 

85 

39 

21 

18 

Alfalfa  hay  cut  at 

beginning      of 

bloom 

84 

45 

22 

23 

Red  clover  hay 

84 

41 

24 

17 

Winter  wheatstraw 

86 

18 

30 

—12 

Oats         (medium 

quality) 

87 

61 

12 

49 

Maize 

87 

78 

8 

70 

Field   beans   . 

86 

12 

11 

61 

Peas 

86 

69 

10 

59 

Linseed  cake 

88 

69 

13 

56 

Potatoes 

25 

23 

3 

20 

Carrots 

15 

11 

2 

9 

ample,  with  red  clover  and  alfalfa — the  origin  of  the  seed  may 
be  a  matter  of  importance. 

Seed  control  stations  determine  the  kinds  and  percentages 
of  impurities  and  the  power  of  germination — that  is,  the  per- 
centage of  pure  seeds  which  can  germinate  or  grow.^  The 
percentage  of  viable  pure  seed  is  obtained  by  multiplying  the 
percentage  of  pure  seed  by  the  percentage  of  total  germination 
of  the  pure  seed.  This  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  actual 
value  of  the  sample.  A  sample,  however,  that  contains  90  per 
cent,  of  viable  pure  seed  may  be  relatively  more  valuable  than 
a  sample  containing  80  per  cent,  than  is  indicated  by  90 :  80, 
because  of  the  more  vigorous  growth  of  seeds  of  high  ger- 

1  For  example  of  pure  seed  law,  see  Maine  Station  Report,  1896,  p.  181; 
or,  Bui.  No.  36  (1897),  p.  65. 


PERENNIAL   FORAGE   GRASSES 


17 


Scales  for  determining  the  weight  per  bushel  of  seeds 


minating  power.  On  the  other  hand,  a  sample  with  the  higher 
percentage  of  viable  pure  seed  may  be  less  desirable  to  sow 
because  of  the  kind  of  impurities. 

14.  Weight  per  Bushel. — While  the  sale  of  seed  by  the  hundred- 
weight is  gradually  superseding  sale  by  the  bushel,  nevertheless 
weight  per  bushel  is  an 
excellent  guide  to  the 
number  of  seeds  per 
pound,  since  the  freer 
the  seed  is  from  chafif 
the  higher  the  weight 
per  bushel.  In  the 
table  on  page  18  the  ex- 
treme variations  in  ac- 
tual weight  per  bushel, 
as  reported  by  different 
stations  and  other  authorities,  are  given  in  the  first  column; 
while  in  the  second  column  occurs  the  legal  weight  in  Canada 
and  the  several  states  where  such  legal  standards  exist. 

15.  Impurities. — These  may  consist  of  three  classes:  (i)  inert 
matter,  (2)  weed  seeds,  and  (3)  foreign  but  useful  seeds. 
Impurities  may  be  accidental — namely,  due  to  the  imperfection 
of  cleaning  machinery  and  to  the  occurrence  of  weeds  or 
cultivated  plants  in  the  crop  when  harvested.  Adulterants  or 
foreign  bodies  artificially  added  for  gain  may  consist  of  inert 
bodies — such  as  colored  stones  in  red  clover  seed,  or  seeds  of 
plants  of  greater  or  less  usefulness  but  of  less  cost  per  pound — 
such  as  black  medic  seed  in  red  clover,  Canada  blue  grass  for 
Kentucky  blue  grass,  and  perennial  rye  grass  for  meadow 
fescue  seed.  In  some  cases  complete  substitution  is  made.  In 
general,  grass  seeds  have  not  been  subject  to  a  great  deal  of 
adulteration.  The  purpose  of  many  lawn  grass  mixtures,  how- 
ever, is  to  substitute  lower  priced  for  higher  priced  seeds. 
Alfalfa  and   clover   seeds   have   been   rather   more   subject   to 


l8  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

Table  Showing  Weight  per  Bushel  of  Grass  Seed  in  Pounds 


Extreme 

Legal  weight 

Name  of  grass 

weight 

s  per 

per 

bushel 

bushel 

Barnyard  millet,  Japanese       .         .         .         • 

35 

35 

Bermuda            ....... 

36 

.. 

Blue   joint        

14 

Broom    corn    millet 

60 

.. 

Canada    blue    

14 

—20 

•• 

Creeping  bent 

15 

—20 

Crested  dog's  tail 

26 

—30 

•• 

Fowl   meadow 

12 

—15 

.. 

Italian   rye 

17 

—24 

20 

Johnson              

28 

28 

Kentucky   blue 

13.25—28 

14 

Meadow    fescue 

12 

—28 

.. 

Meadow    foxtail 

5.25—14 

.. 

Millets  1 

50 

50  2 

Orchard 

11.5 

—21 

14 

Perennial    rye 

18 

—30 

Redtop 

12 

—40 

14  » 

Reed    canary    

14 

—48 

•• 

Rhode  Island  bent 

15 

Rough   stalked  meadow   .         .         . 

11 

—28 

•• 

Sheep's    fescue 

12 

—28 

Smooth   brome 

12 

—14 

14 

Sweet    vernal 

6 

—15 

•• 

Tall   meadow   fescue 

14 

—25 

.. 

Tall    meadow    oat 

7 

—14 

7 

Timothy 

44 

—50 

45* 

Velvet 

6 

—  7 

7 

1  Common,  Hungarian,  German,   Golden  Wonder. 

2  Reported  for  "millet"  in  a  number  of  states;  48  lb.  in  Minnesota. 

3  12  in   Virginia. 

*  48  in  Canada,  42  in  Oklahoma,  60  in  Arkansas. 


PERENNIAL   FORAGE   GRASSES 


19 


adulteration.  The  most  important  impurities  are  noxious  weed 
seeds,  their  injurious  quality  being  due  to  the  kinds  rather 
than  the  quantity  of  seeds  present.  A  great  deal  of  seed  placed 
on  the  market  is  of  low  germinating  power. 

16.  Sampling  Seeds. — It  is  essential  to  secure  an  average 
sample  of  seed  to  be  tested  either  for  impurities  or  for 
germination.  If  the  seed  is  in  a  bin,  a  grain  sampler  may  be 
used;  if  in  sacks,  samples  may  be  taken  from  various 
parts  of  each  by  means  of  small  seed  sampler.  When  the 
quantity  is  small  enough,  it  should  be  emptied  upon  a  flat 
surface,  thoroughly  mixed,  and 
seeds  taken  from  various  parts 
to  make  up  the  sample  far 
mixing.  For  the  seeds  of  forage 
crops,  either  of  grasses  or  of 
legumes,  a  two-ounce  sample  is 
sufficient,  except  where  the 
seeds  are  the  size  of  vetches  or 
cowpeas,  when  a  four-ounce 
sample  should  be  taken. 

In  testing  grass  seed  it  is  es- 
sential to  take  small  and  large 
seeds  in  the  proportion  in  which 
they  exist  in  the  whole  sample. 
In  some  grass  seeds  there  are 
many  empty  glumes  which  it  is 

difficult  to  distinguish  from  those  containing  grain.  They  may 
be  distinguished  by  wetting  the  seeds,  placing  them  upon  a 
plate  of  glass  and  holding  up  to  the  light,  when  the  empty 
glumes  will  appear  translucent,  while  those  containing  seed  will 
be  opaque. 

The  sample  as  received  for  testing  may  be  spread  carefully 
upon  a  sheet  of  paper  and  divided  by  means  of  a  spatula  into 
sub-divisions   until   a   small   enough   sample   for   actual   test  is 


Seed  mixer  and  sampler 


20  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

obtained.  Or  it  may  be  done  as  in  the  seed-testing  division 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  by  means  of 
the  apparatus  shown  in  this  paragraph. 

17.  Seed  Identification. — As  grass  seeds  occur  in  commerce, 
the  seeds  are  usually  surrounded  by  the  flowering  glume  and 
palea,  although  a  portion  of  the  sample  may  contain  naked  seeds. 
The  naked  seed  is  the  ripened  ovulary  or  fruit  known  as  a 
caryopsis,  as  in  the  case  of  cereal  seeds.  (C.  A.  60)  The 
flowering  glume  furnishes  means  of  identification  by  variations 
in  length,  color,  and  thickness,  character  or  absence  of  keel, 
number  of  nerves,  character  of  position  and  shape  of  awn; 
by  the  shape,  position,  and  hairiness  of  the  rachilla,  or  by  its 
absence.  When  the  spikelet  is  two — or  more — seeded  the 
rachilla  exists;  but  when,  as  in  timothy  and  redtop,  the  spikelet 
is  one-seeded,  no  rachilla  is  attached  at  the  base  of  the  palea 
in  the  harvested  seed.  The  point  of  the  flowering  glume  may 
be  blunt  or  pointed,  and  may  be  straight  or  curved. 

In  the  case  of  the  seeds  of  the  legumes  the  general  shape 
and,  to  some  extent,  the  color  and  size  of  seeds  furnish  means 
of  identification.  The  relative  length  of  the  ridge  or  raphe, 
the  prominence  of  the  tip  of  the  caulicle  or  radicle,  and  the 
shape  and  color  of  the  hilum  are  often  characteristic.  The 
pods  when  present  are  one  of  the  most  certain  means  of 
identification. 

18.  Germination  of  Seeds. — The  practise  of  seed  control  sta- 
tions is  to  germinate  seeds  at  a  temperature  of  64°  to  68°  F.  The 
practise  with  regard  to  grass  seeds  is  to  raise  the  temperature 
during  six  of  the  24  hours  to  86°  F.,  as  this  temperature  has  been 
found  to  promote  germination.  Kentucky  blue  grass  has  been 
found  to  germinate  better  when  the  temperature  is  lowered  to 
40°  F.  a  portion  of  the  24  hours.  The  time  required  to  test  most 
grass  seed  has  been  established  at  21  days,  timothy  and  rye 
grass  14  days,  while  for  the  Poas  28  days  are  required.   Legumes 


PERENNIAL    FORAGE   GRASSES  21 

require  about  seven  days.  Among  leguminous  seeds,  especially 
clover  seeds,  the  presence  of  hard  or  dormant  seeds  is  common. 
On  account  of  the  structure  of  their  seed  coats  or  of  their 
chemical  composition,  they  do  not  readily  absorb  water  and 
hence  do  not  germinate  within  seven  days,  although  they  do 
so  later.  It  is  usual  to  add  one-half  to  one-third  the  per  cent, 
of  hard  seeds  remaining  to  the  percentage  of  germinating 
seeds.  In  red  clover  the  number  of  hard  seeds  is  generally 
7  to  9  per  cent.  They  are  said  to  be  more  common  when  the 
seed  crop  is  good  and  to  be  more  frequent  among  dark  clover 
seeds.  It  has  been  found  that  scratching  or  rubbing  the  surface 
makes  them  more  easily  germinable,  and  it  is  said  that  friction 
is  sometimes  practised  by  seedsmen  for  this  purpose. 

Germination  tests  are  carried  on  either  between  or  upon 
flannel  cloth  or  blotting  paper  or  in  beds  of  sterilized  sand 
free  from  organic  matter.  The  small  seeds  do  best  when  placed 
upon,  the  large  ones  when  placed  between  the  media.  Ex- 
perience has  shown  which  gives  the  best  results  in  the  case  of 
each  species.  In  seed  control  stations  the  seeds  from  loo  to 
400,  after  being  placed  upon  or  between  the  cloth  or  blotter, 
are  put  in  a  germinating  apparatus  where  the  temperature 
is  under  control.  (C.  A.  476)  For  private  tests  the  cloth, 
blotter,  or  sand  may  be  placed  between  dinner  plates,  kept  in 
a  room  that  does  not  fall  below  50°  F.  at  night  and  is  between 
60°  and  70°  F.  during  the  day. 

19.  Grass  Mixtures. — The  desirability  of  sowing  two  or  more 
kinds  of  grass  seed  together  must  depend  largely  on  the 
adaptability  of  the  grasses  to  the  locality  and  the  purpose  for 
which  the  crop  is  grown.  For  hay  the  plants  should  mature 
at  about  the  same  time.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  rule  that 
for  hay  it  does  not  pay  to  grow  one  plant  with  another  when 
it  is  not  in  itself  adapted  to  the  conditions  under  which  it  is 
grown  when  sown  alone.  If  it  does  not  pay  to  sow  alone  it 
will  not  pay  to  sow  with  another  crop.     The  introduction  of 


22  THE   FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

such  a  plant  reduces  the  yield  by  occupying  land  which  could 
have  been  more  profitably  occupied  by  a  plant  adapted  to  the 
existing  conditions.  The  plant  is  out  of  place;  it  becomes 
a  weed. 

Roots  never  fully  occupy  the  soil.  Those  of  different  plants 
occupy  different  portions  of  it.  The  roots  of  timothy  grow 
near  the  surface;  clover  roots  grow  deeper.  Thus  to  a  certain 
extent  they  do  not  interfere  with  each  other.  When  red  clover 
is  sown  with  timothy  the  former  usually  dies  after  the  second 
crop,  leaving  the  decaying  roots  and  stems  to  furnish  their 
acquired  fertility  to  the  timothy  and  to  succeeding  crops.  The 
holes  left  by  the  decaying  roots  may  perhaps  in  some  cases 
improve  the  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil.  In  many  fields 
some  portions  of  the  land  are  best  adapted  to  timothy  and  other 
portions  best  adapted  to  red  clover.  Under  these  conditions 
a  combination  may  yield  the  maximum  crop. 

In  some  localities  timothy  does  not  reach  its  best  develop- 
ment until  it  has  been  sown  two  or  three  years.  In  the  mean- 
time the  clover  may  occupy  a  portion  of  the  ground  with  no 
serious  ultimate  disadvantage,  apparently,  to  the  timothy.  The 
seeding  with  a  miscellaneous  mixture  of  grass  seeds  of  varieties 
of  little  or  no  value  when  sown  alone  has  neither  practical  nor 
experimental  evidence  in  this  country  to  commend  it.  Under 
uniform  conditions  of  soil,  the  maximum  yields  of  hay  are 
obtained  when  but  a  single  species  exists.  For  pasturage, 
several  varieties  may  be  desirable  in  order  to  furnish  a  suc- 
cession of  herbage  throughout  the  season.  The  chief  difficulty 
in  America  is  to  find  varieties  adapted  to  our  soil  and  climate 
which  will  do  this.      (74) 

20.  Calculating  Mixtures. — The  amount  of  seed  required  per 
acre  may  be  stated  in  the  number  of  pounds  of  viable  pure 
seeds  or  as  the  number  of  pounds  of  commercial  seed  of  a 
stated  percentage  of  purity  and  standard  of  germination.  In 
this  volume  the  latter  mode  of  statement  is  employed. 


PERENNIAL  FORAGE  GRASSES 


23 


In  order  to  secure  a  stand  containing  a  desired  percentage 
of  different  species  of  grasses  and  legumes,  it  is  necessary  to 
sow  the  same  percentages  of  the  amount  of  seed  required  for 
a  complete  stand  when  sown  alone,  making  such  correction  as 
may  be  necessary  on  account  of  difference  in  percentage  of 
viable  pure  seed.  Further,  an  additional  amount  of  seed, 
varying  from  10  to  80  per  cent.,  is  added  because  of  the  ability 
of  the  land  to  support  more  plants  when  two  or  more  species 
are  sown  together.  As  an  illustration,  let  it  be  supposed  that 
15  pounds  of  timothy  seed  containing  88  per  cent,  of  viable 
pure  seed,  10  pounds  of  red  clover  seed  containing  95  per  cent, 
of  viable  pure  seed,  and  8  pounds  of  alsike  clover  containing 
90  per  cent,  of  viable  pure  seed  are  required  when  sown  alone, 
and  that  a  mixture  is  desired  consisting  of  50  per  cent,  timothy, 
25  per  cent,  each  of  red  and  alsike  clover,  and  the  per  cent,  of 
viable  pure  seed  in  the  commercial  samples  to  be  used  are  80, 
90,  and  85  respectively,  and  that  a  stand  of  50  per  cent,  greater 
is  possible  on  account  of  the  mixture, — the  amount  of  seed 
required  will  be  shown  in  the  following  table: 


Commercial 

Viable 

Commercial 

Amount 

The  plant 

seed    of 
standard 

pure 

seed   of 
quality 

required     on 
addition    of 

quality 

purchased 

50   per  cent. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Timothy 

7. 

6.6 

8.25 

12.37 

Red  clover 

2.5 

2.38 

2.64 

3.96 

Alsike  clover 

2.0 

1.8 

2.12 

3.18 

21.  Pasture  Grasses. — A  considerable  portion  of  the  live  stock 
of  the  United  States  has  thus  far  pastured  upon  lands  which 
have  never  been  seeded  by  man,  while  frequently  those  which 
have  at  some  time  been  seeded  now  contain  chiefly  grasses  that 
were  not  sown.  In  the  western  half  of  the  United  States 
domestic   animals   graze   principally   upon   the    native   grasses, 


24  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

chief  of  which  are  the  grama,  the  mesquite,  buffalo  grass,  and 
the  bunch  grasses  of  which  those  belonging  to  the  genus  Stipa 
and  to  the  genus  Oryzopsis  are  the  leading  types.  Likewise, 
Koeleria  cristata  ((L.)  Pers.),  Deschampsia  caespitosa  ((L.) 
Beauv.),  and  several  species  of  the  genus  Festuca  are  widely 
diffused.  Blue  joint  (Calamagrostis  canadensis  Beauv.)  is  one 
of  the  best  and  most  productive  on  moist  soils  and  in  cool 
climates.  The  native  grasses  of  the  range  have  the  common 
characteristics  of  growing  in  a  dry  climate  and  producing  a 
nutritious  herbage  which  retains  its  nutritious  qualities  when 
dried  standing.  This  is  in  part  due  to  the  climate  rather  than 
to  the  kind  of  grasses.  The  latter  quality  is  probably  in  part 
due  to  the  fact  that  fermentative  and  putrefactive  qualities  of 
all  kinds  take  place  less  rapidly  in  a  dry  than  in  a  moist 
climate.  East  of  the  Missouri  River  and  north  of  the  cotton 
states  the  Poas,  of  which  Kentucky  blue  grass  is  the  most 
common  species,  form  with  white  clover  the  basis  of  most  all 
pastures.  In  some  sections,  notably  the  New  England  states, 
the  Agrostis,  of  which  redtop  is  a  common  species,  form  no 
inconsiderable  part  of  the  herbage.  In  places,  especially  upon 
good  land,  the  fescues  occur,  particularly  the  meadow  fescue. 
Meadow  foxtail  occurs  in  slight  quantities.  When  seeding  to 
pasture,  timothy  generally  forms  a  part  of  the  mixture  because 
of  its  rapid  growth.  Where  conditions  are  favorable,  orchard 
grass  makes  fairly  satisfactory  pasture.  (85)  Smooth  brome 
grass,  introduced  as  late  as  1896,  is  being  highly  recom- 
mended as  a  pasture  grass  for  sub-humid  sections  of  the  United 
States.  Bermuda  grass  has  been  introduced  into  the  cotton 
states,  where  with  Japan  clover  it  is  somewhat,  although  not 
extensively,  used  for  pasture. 

22.  Native  Grasses. — Gradually  the  settlement  of  new  lands 
and  the  changes  from  the  range  to  improved  agriculture  are  re- 
placing the  native  prairie  grasses  with  cereals  and  tame  grasses. 
Nevertheless,  the  area  in  wild,  salt,  and  prairie  grasses  in  1899 


PERENNIAL    FORAGE    GRASSES  25 

constituted  nearly  one-fourth  of  the  total  acreage  producing 
hay  and  forage.  The  great  bulk — four-fifths — of  this  produc- 
tion was  confined  to  the  North  Central  states,  forming  a  distinct 
western  border  to  timothy  culture.  These  grasses  are  supplied 
by  a  considerable  number  of  tribes  of  the  grass  family,  but 
come  principally  from  seven  tribes,  of  which  the  most  important 
are  probably  the  Chlorideae,  furnishing  blue  or  white  grama 
(Bouteloua  oligostachya  (Nutt.)  Torr.),  the  Andropogoneae, 
furnishing  big  blue  stem  (Andropogon  provincialis  Lam.),  and 
the  Hordeae,  furnishing  western  wheat  grass  (Agropyron 
spicatum  (Pursh)   Scribn.  &  Smith ).^ 

23.   Influence  of  Species  of  Plants  on  Value  of  Pasture. — A 

grass  or  other  plant  in  a  mixed  herbage  is  no  evidence  of  its 
value,  since  its  occurrence  may  be  due  to  the  failure  of  animals 
to  eat  it  readily.  (8)  In  America,  blue  grass  is  widely  prized 
as  a  pasture  grass;  while  stock  men  generally  look  upon  wire 
grass  or  Canadian  blue  grass  as  a  weed  and  as  having  little 
food  value.  Certain  observations,  however,  seem  to  indicate 
that  although  wire  grass  is  likely  to  occur  on  less  productive 
land,  and  therefore  to  support  fewer  animals  per  acre,  cattle 
can  be  fattened  upon  it. 

With  the  view  to  determining  the  relative  value  of  different 
species  of  grasses  and  of  different  species  of  plants  other  than 

1  These  tribes  together  furnish,  among  others,  16  species  of  rather  well 
established  economic  importance.     They  are  as  follows: 

Andropogoneae:  big  blue  stem  (Andropogon  provincialis  Lam.),  little  blue 
stem  (A.  Scoparius  Michx.),  bushy  blue  stem  (A.  nutans  L.),  broom  sedge 
(A.  virginicus  L.) ;  Zoysieae:  black  bunch  grass  or  black  grama  (Hilaria  mu- 
tica  (Buck.)  Benth.) ;  Paniceae:  munro-grass  (Panicum  agrostoides  Muhl.) ; 
Agrostideae :  wild  timothy  (Muhlenbergia  racemosa  (Michx.)  B.  S.  P.),  wire 
grama  (Af.  porteri  Scribn.),  saccaton  or  fnaton  (Sporobolus  wrigJitii  Munro) ; 
Festuceae:  salt  grass  (Distichlis  spicata  (L.)  Greene),  reed  meadow  grass 
(Panicularia  americana  (Torr.)  MacM.) ;  Chlorideae:  blue  or  white  grama 
(Bouteloua  oligostachya  (Nutt.)  Torr.) ;  side  oats  (B.  curtipendula  (Mx.) 
Torr.);  Hordeae:  giant  rye  grass  (Elymus  condensatus  Presl.),  western  wheat 
grass  (Agropyron  spicatum  (Pursh)  Scribn.  &  Smith),  western  couch  grass 
(A.   pseudorepens  Scribn.  &  Smith). 


26  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

grasses  upon  the  permanent  pastures  of  England,  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society  appointed  a  commission  which,  after  in- 
vestigating the  subject  for  several  years,  reported  that  in  dif- 
ferent pastures  the  species  of  cultivated  grasses  ranged  from 
II  to  100  per  cent.,  of  legumes  from  zero  to  38  per  cent.,  and 
miscellaneous  plants,  so-called  weeds,  from  zero  to  89  per  cent. 
No  correlation  whatever  was  found  between  the  value  of  the 
pasture  as  shown  by  the  beef  and  mutton  produced  and  the 
botanical  character  of  the  herbage.  Pastures  with  widely 
varying  proportions  of  grasses  and  other  plants  produced 
equally  good  results ;  while  pastures  with  the  same  percentages 
of  different  grasses  and  other  plants  gave  widely  differ- 
ent results. 

24.  Collateral  Reading. — W.  J.  Beal :  Grasses  of  North  America,  Vol.  I, 
pp.   5-13;   75-78.     New   York:    Henry   Holt  &   Co.,    1896. 

William  Jasper  Spillman:  Farm  Grasses  of  the  United  States,  pp.  64-74. 
New  York:  Orange  Judd  Co.,   1905. 

F.  G.  Stebler  and  C.  Schroter:  The  Best  Forage  Plants,  pp.  3-8.  London: 
David  Nutt,   1889. 

H.  Marshall  Ward:  Grasses:  A  Handbook  for  Use  in  the  Field  and  Labora- 
tory, pp.  6-27.      Cambridge  at   the   University   Press.      1901. 

George  Francis  Atkinson:  A  College  Text-book  of  Botany,  pp.  556-564. 
New  York:   Henry  Holt  &   Co..    1905. 

Henry  Prentiss  Armsby:  The  Principles  of  Animal  Nutrition,  pp.  269-271; 
281-335.     New  York:  John  Wiley  &  Sons,   1903. 

G.  H.  Hicks:  Grass  Seed  and  Its  Impurities.  In  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Year- 
book  1898,   pp.   473-493. 

F.  Lamson-Scribner:  Our  Native  Pasture  Plants.  In  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 
Yearbook   1900,   pp.    581-598. 

C.  A.  Zavitz:  Permanent  Pasture.  In  Ontario  Agr.  Col.  and  Expt,  Farm 
Report   1893,  pp.   110-117. 


II 


PERENNIAL  FORAGE  GRASSES 

I.     CULTURAL   METHODS 

25.  Nurse  Crop. — The  usual  method  of  sowing  grass  seed  is 
to  sow  with  grain  crops.  Undoubtedly  this  is  good  practise 
for  most  regions.  Usually  no  crop  of  hay  can  be  harvested 
the  first  year.  If  sown  alone  the  land  is  not  sufficiently  shaded 
by  the  grass  to  prevent  the  growth  of  weeds,  which  otherwise 
must  be  mown  at  considerable  expense.  The  crop  of  hay  the 
succeeding  year  is  no  better  than  if  grain  had  been  sown  with 
the  crop  the  preceding  year.  This  is  especially  true  of  our 
leading  hay  crops — timothy,  red  clover,  mammoth  red  clover, 
and  redtop.  A  crop  of  grain,  also,  is  obtained  at  little  addi- 
tional expense.  The  New  Hampshire  Station  ^  conducted  an 
experiment  in  seeding  meadow  with  nurse  crop  versus  no  nurse 
crop.  The  hay  crop  consisted  of  a  mixture  of  17  pounds  of 
grass  seed  and  12  pounds  of  clover  seed  per  acre,  while  barley 
served  as  a  nurse  crop.  Although  the  yield  from  that  portion 
of  the  field  sown  with  barley  greatly  exceeded  that  without 
barley  the  first  season,  the  yield  the  second  season  was  dis- 
tinctly in  favor  of  that  portion  where  no  nurse  crop  had  been 
sown.  Nevertheless  the  total  weights  for  the  two  seasons 
showed  an  excess  of  1.8  tons  in  favor  of  the  crop  sown  with 
barley.  Whether  or  not  the  relative  yields  would  remain  con- 
stant, had  the  experiment  been  continued,  the  indications  are 
that  for  New  Hampshire  conditions  the  nurse  crop  is  advisable. 
In  some  regions,  however,  timothy  sown  alone  in  fall  will 

iNew  Hampshire  Sta.  Bui.  No.  59   (1898),  p.   186. 

27 


28  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AxMERICA 

produce  a  fair  crop  of  hay  the  following  season.  Under  such 
conditions,  when  sown  with  wheat,  it  produces  so  much  hay  as 
to  interfere  with  the  harvesting  of  the  crop  as  well  as  materially 
to  reduce  the  yield  of  wheat.  In  such  regions  the  custom  is 
either  to  sow  the  timothy  alone  or  sow  it  later — say  ten  days 
after  wheat  has  been  sown.  These  localities  are  the  exception 
rather  than  the  rule.  Generally  the  practise  of  sowing  the  grass 
seed  with  the  grain  crop  is  based  on  sound  business  principles. 

26.  Method  of  Seeding. — Grass  seeds  may  be  sown  by  hand; 
and  with  certain  chaffy  seeds,  such  as  uncleaned  redtop,   un- 

cleaned  Kentucky  blue  grass,  or 
smooth  brome  grass  seeds,  this  is 
the  only  satisfactory  method.  For 
timothy,  re-cleaned  redtop,  re- 
cleaned  Kentucky  blue  grass,  the 
clovers  and  alfalfa,  grass  seeders 
give  more  satisfactory  results.  The 
grass  seeder  which  throws  the  seed 
Hand  seeder  irom  a  revolving  disk  may  be  used 

under  a  greater  variety  of  conditions,  but  the  evenness  of 
seeding  is  more  affected  by  the  wind  than  v/hen  the  so-called 
wheelbarrow  seeder  is  used.  Grass  seeders  are  also  attached 
to  grain  drills,  and  when  grass  seed  is  to  be  sown  at  the  same 
time  as  the  grain  this  is  the  most  satisfactory  method  of 
sowing.  The  spouts  are  generally  adjustable  so  that  seeds  may 
be  sown  in  front  or  behind  the  grain  hoes,  thus  making  it  pos- 
sible to  vary  the  depth  of  seeding,  depending  on  the  character 
of  the  soil  or  the  kind  of  seed. 

27.  Time  of  Seeding. — Grasses  may  be  successfully  sown  at 
any  portion  of  the  growing  season,  but  in  humid  climates  fall 
sowing  is  usually  the  most  successful,  either  when  sown  alone 
or  with  grain  crops,  as  is  the  most  usual  practise.     Sowing 


PERENNIAL   FORAGE   GRASSES  29 

with  fall  crops  gives  better  results,  not  only  because  germina- 
tion is  usually  more  certain  but  because  fall  cereals  are  usually 
harvested  earlier  than  spring  cereals;  consequently  less  injury 
results  to  the  new 
seeding  after  the 
harvesting  of  the 
cereal,  which  is  fre- 
quently a  critical 
period  for  the  grass.  Wheelbarrow  grass  seeder 

In     sub-humid    sec- 
tions where  there  is  almost  no  fall  precipitation,  spring  seeding 
becomes  desirable,  since  if  sown  in  the  autumn  the  seeds  ger- 
minate poorly  or  not  at  all,  and  the  growth  is  unsatisfactory. 
Autumn  seeding  is  therefore  not  practised  in  such  sections. 

28.  Depth  of  Seeding. — Grass  seeds  must  not  be  sown  so 
deeply  as  cereals.  The  smaller  the  seeds  the  shallower  they  must 
be  sown.  They  have  less  starch  with  which  to  support  the  plant 
until  the  germination  is  complete.  The  plant  is  so  delicate  that 
it  cannot  overcome  the  resistance  of  the  soil.  These  facts  make 
a  well-prepared  seedbed  or  a  great  waste  of  seed  imperative. 

Much  seed  is  sown  without  any  covering,  although  a  light 
covering  is  generally  advantageous.  Probably  better  average 
results  would  be  obtained  with  deeper  covering  than  is  usually 
practised,  if  the  seedbed  is  carefully  prepared.  In  continued 
moist,  rainy  weather  the  covering  is  not  important.  The  great 
difficulty  in  securing  a  stand  is  from  the  drying  of  the  surface 
soil  just  when  the  seeds  are  sprouting  and  the  plants  are 
becoming  established.  The  seeds  being  so  near  the  surface  the 
soil  may  in  a  few  days  become  dry  enough  to  kill  the  plants. 

29.  Rotations. — Rotations  have  usually  been  studied  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  influence  of  the  grasses  in  improving  the  soil 
for  other  crops  rather  than  to  secure  the  best  rotation  for  the 
grass.     (C.  A.  283)     It  has  long  been  recognized  that  grass 


30  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

is  an  important  factor  in  a  proper  system  of  husbandry.  There 
is  an  old  Flemish  proverb:  "No  grass,  no  cattle;  no  cattle,  no 
manure;  no  manure,  no  crops."  Both  scientific  research  and 
farm  practise  confirm  this  proverb. 

Aside  from  the  value  of  a  rotation  including  grasses  for  im- 
proving the  crop-producing  power  of  the  soil,  it  is  desirable 
to  plow  up  meadows  and  put  the  land  into  other  crops  for  the 
benefit  of  the  meadows  themselves.  Insect  enemies  increase 
from  year  to  year.  Weeds  that  produce  seeds  before  the  grass 
is  mown  also  increase.  At  the  Cornell  Station,  out  of  9,000 
plants  that  had  been  grown  separately  49.4  per  cent,  died  during 
the  first  two  years  after  they  had  started.  In  field  practise 
the  increasing  compactness  of  the  soil  and  the  decreasing  aera- 
tion would  both  probably  tend  to  reduce  reproduction  by  under- 
ground stems  and  therefore  reduce  the  life  of  the  meadow. 
Whether  succeeding  generations  of  plants  reproduced  asexually 
by  the  underground  stems  are  weaker  than  those  plants 
produced  by  seed  has  not  been  shown  experimentally.  The 
fact  that  English  pastures  have  remained  permanently  in  grass 
for  300  years  suggests  that  asexual  reproduction  does  not 
weaken  the  vitality,  although  in  these  cases  some  re-seeding 
has  doubtless  occurred. 

In  some  instances  a  timothy  meadow  reaches  its  best  develop- 
ment the  second  year  after  seeding — or,  in  other  words,  the 
largest  yield  of  hay  is  obtained  at  the  first  cutting.  Taking 
the  region  adapted  to  the  growth  of  timothy  as  a  whole,  how- 
ever, it  is  probable  that  the  best  yields  are  obtained  at  the 
second  and  third  cuttings,  or  on  the  third  and  fourth  years 
from  seeding.  Either  when  sown  alone  or  in  combination  with 
red  clover,  therefore,  a  rotation  in  which  timothy  occupies 
two  or  three  crop  years  will  give  usually  the  best  results  so 
far  as  the  yield  of  hay  is  concerned,  and  probably  also  so  far 
as  increasing  the  power  of  the  soil  to  produce  other  crops. 
When  variations  are  made  from  this  period  it  is  usually  due 


PERENNIAL   FORAGE   GRASSES  3 1 

to  economic  conditions — as  the  difficulty  of  plowing  the  land, 
and  the  relative  adaptability  or  value  of  different  crops.  Be- 
ginning with  land  which  would  hardly  produce  500  pounds  of 
hay  to  the  acre,  the  Rhode  Island  Station — by  means  of  a  six- 
course  rotation  consisting  of  rye  one  year;  grass  (timothy  15, 
redtop  7.5,  red  clover  7.5  pounds)  three  years;  maize  one  year; 
and  potatoes  one  year;  and  by  means  of  rather  heavy  applica- 
tions of  commercial  fertilizers  each  year,  and  the  use  of  lime — 
has  secured  hay  crops  averaging  4  tons  or  more  per  acre. 

Land  used  for  pasture  is  often  the  least  arable  portion  of 
the  farm  and,  in  such  case,  not  likely  to  enter  into  the  general 
system  of  rotation.  When  it  does  enter  into  the  rotation,  dif- 
ferent grasses  are  required  than  when  the  pasture  is  permanent. 
It  is  not  advisable  to  sow  Kentucky  blue  grass,  meadow  fescue, 
or  meadow  foxtail  unless  the  land  is  to  remain  in  pasture  for 
more  than  three  years.  Where,  from  lack  of  adaptation  of 
suitable  grasses  for  pasture,  it  is  necessary  to  use  grasses  and 
clovers  of  short  duration,  then  pastures,  like  meadows,  must 
be  renewed  by  plowing  and  re-seeding. 

With  suitable  grasses,  pastures  may  be  permanent.  In  Eng- 
land pastures  are  believed  to  improve  with  age,  pastures  having 
existed  there  for  such  long  periods  that  there  is  no  record  of 
the  land  having  been  plowed,  although  the  existence  of  fur- 
rows is  evidence  that  they  have  been.  While  pastures  may  be 
permanent,  a  rotation  of  crops  may  occur.  Not  only  may 
different  species  occupy  the  same  spot  at  different  times,  but 
the  proportion  of  different  species  will  vary  with  climatic  and 
soil  conditions. 

30.  Fertilizing  Elements. — Experiments  by  Lawes  and  Gilbert 
conducted  on  a  large  scale  and  extending  over  many  years 
show  that  nitrogenous  manures  act  most  beneficially  on  grasses, 
while  potash  manures  are  most  beneficial  to  leguminous  plants. 
While  the  results  of  American  stations  tend  to  confirm  the 
principles  involved  in  the  English  experiments,  the  results  in 


32  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

practise  are  somewhat  masked  by  the  fact  that  American  soils 
are  on  an  average  relatively  more  virgin  and  hence  presumably 
better  supplied  with  soluble  nitrates,  and  over  a  wide  area  in 
America  the  soils  are  relatively  low  in  phosphates.  In  America, 
phosphoric  manures  frequently  have  a  marked  influence  upon 
vegetative  growth,  especially  when  used  in  connection  with 
nitrogenous  manures  for  grasses  and  potash  manures  for 
leguminous  crops. 

31.  Essential  Conditions  for  the  Successful  Use  of  Fertilizers 
upon  Grasses. — There  are  three  conditions  necessary  for  a  suc- 
cessful increase  of  a  grass  crop  through  the  use  of  fertilizers 
of  any  sort: 

1.  The  increase  will  depend  on  the  ability  of  the  land  to 
grow  a  crop  without  fertilizers.  If  the  land  will  now  grow 
only  1,000  pounds  of  hay  to  the  acre  and  this  small  growth 
is  due  primarily  to  the  need  of  fertilizers,  then  a  certain  ap- 
plication of  fertilizer  may  increase  the  yield  to  4,000  pounds 
per  acre.  If  the  same  application  is  made  to  land  already 
yielding  4,000  pounds  of  hay  per  acre,  the  increase  may  or 
may  not  be  3,000  pounds  per  acre,  depending  on  whether  7,000 
pounds  are  a  normal  yield  with  the  climatic  conditions  of  the 
place  and  the  stand  of  grass. 

2.  The  increase  due  to  fertilizers  depends  on  the  climatic 
conditions.  If  the  climatic  conditions  are  such  as  to  produce 
only  1,000  pounds  of  hay  per  acre,  the  addition  of  fertilizers 
will  not  materially  increase  the  yield.  If  the  climatic  conditions 
are  such  as  to  produce  7,000  pounds  of  hay  per  acre,  it  may 
take  less  fertilizer  to  increase  the  yield  from  4,000  to  7,000 
pounds  per  acre  than  from  1,000  to  4,000  pounds  per  acre. 

3.  Where  the  climatic  conditions  are  favorable,  grasses 
respond  well  to  the  use  of  fertilizers;  doubtless  due,  in  part 
at  least,  to  the  large  number  of  plants  influenced  by  the  fer- 
tilizers and  to  large  root  surface  which  prevents  the  loss  of  the 
fertilizers   applied.     An   essential   condition,   therefore,    for   a 


PERENNIAL    FORAGE   GRASSES  33 

maximum  yield  is  a  sufficient  and  uniform  stand  of  the  grass 
or  grasses  it  is  desired  to  grow.  It  is  true  that  under  favorable 
conditions  a  comparatively  few  plants  may  produce  a  large 
yield.     (10) 

There  are  probably  two  reasons  why  a  large  stand  is  desirable. 
There  is  a  limit  to  which  a  single  plant  may  be  increased 
through  the  use  of  a  fertilizer,  and  hence  the  larger  the  number 
of  plants  within  certain  limits  the  greater  the  total  increase. 
The  second  reason  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  when  the 
plants  are  not  sufficiently  thick,  other  less  desirable  and  smaller 
yielding  plants  grow.  By  occupying  the  space  and  by  taking 
the  available  plant  food  at  critical  times  such  grasses  reduce 
the  yield. 

The  principles  here  enunciated  are  of  great  practical  im- 
portance in  America.  Over  a  large  area,  especially  in  the 
North  Central,  the  Western,  and  the  Southern  states,  the  chief 
limiting  factor  in  the  production  of  perennial  forage  grasses 
is  the  climatic  conditions.  The  production  of  timothy  is 
limited  to  two  tons  per  acre  or  less,  principally  by  climatic 
conditions.  The  addition  of  fertilizers,  except  in  so  far  as 
they  may  change  the  moisture  content  of  the  soil,  is  not  likely 
to  have  material  effect  in  increasing  the  yield,  although  an  in- 
creased vigor  of  plants  induced  by  fertilizers  during  a  moist 
period  may  have  some  effect.  On  the  other  hand,  throughout 
the  northeastern  part  of  the  United  States  the  climatic  condi- 
tions are  extremely  favorable  to  the  growth  of  grasses.  The 
very  climatic  conditions  which  are  favorable  to  the  growth 
of  grasses  are  also  favorable  to  a  waste  of  the  available  plant 
food  of  the  soil;  thus  it  is  here  that  experimental  evidence 
shows  marked  influence  from  the  use  of  fertilizers  when  applied 
to  grass  lands. 

Commercially,  two  other  factors  enter  into  the  use  of  fer- 
tilizers— namely,  the  cost  of  the  fertilizers  and  the  cost  of  the 
product.     Since  the  cost  of  transportation  is  high  on  both  the 


34  THE    FORAGE   AND   FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

fertilizer  and  the  hay,  it  results  that  local  conditions  will  more 
largely  influence  the  use  of  fertilizers,  and  especially  com- 
mercial fertilizers,  upon  the  perennial  forage  grasses  than  upon 
any  other  of  our  staple  crops. 

The  cumulative  effect  of  adding  commercial  fertilizers  year 
after  year  to  perennial  forage  grasses  is  probably  greater  than 
with  annual  crops  of  any  kind.  This  is  probably  not  due 
alone  or  even  principally  to  the  cumulative  effect  of  the  plant 
food  in  the  soil,  but  to  the  more  vigorous  plants  which  are 
carried  over  from  year  to  year.  One  of  the  effects,  doubtless, 
is  to  increase  the  duration  of  the  plant  and  thus  prevent  the 
entrance  of  other  less  desirable  and  less  productive  plants. 

32.  Application  of  Commercial  Fertilizers. — Commercial  fer- 
tilizers, when  applied  to  pastures  or  meadows,  should  be  applied 
in  the  spring  as  soon  as  the  grass  starts  to  grow.  Experiments 
indicate  that  one  such  application  is  as  effective  as  the  same 
quantity  of  fertilizer  divided  between  two  or  more  applications 
throughout  the  season.  The  fertilizer  may  be  sown  by  hand, 
although  there  are  distributers  for  broadcasting  fertilizers. 
The  Cornell  Station  advises  for  application  to  timothy  meadows 
on  Dunkirk  clay  loam,  when  in  proper  rotation,  200  pounds  of 
nitrate  of  soda,  100  pounds  of  15  per  cent,  acid  phosphate,  and 
50  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  per  acre.  This  is  equal  to  the 
application  of  250  pounds  of  a  15-6- 10  mixed  fertilizer  per 
acre.  The  Rhode  Island  Station  in  a  six-course  rotation — 
maize  on  grass  sod,  potatoes,  winter  rye,  each  one  year;  red 
clover  and  grass  (timothy  and  redtop),  three  years — recom- 
mends an  annual  application  of  the  following  fertilizers  as  a 
top-dressing  to  the  grass:  nitrate  of  soda  350,  muriate  of  pot- 
ash 200,  acid  phosphate  500  pounds.^ 

33.  Methods  of  Improving  Pastures. — Pastures  may  be  im- 
proved in  four  different  ways : 

1  Rhode  Island  Sta.  Bui.  No.  99   (1904),  p.  107. 


PERENNIAL   FORAGE   GRASSES  35 

1.  By  sowing  upon  the  pasture  from  time  to  time  moderate 
quantities  of  a  suitable  mixture  of  grass  seeds.  This  is  espe- 
cially desirable  in  case  fields  are  kept  closely  pastured  and  thusj 
not  allowed  to  re-seed. 

2.  Although  it  may  slightly  decrease  the  palatability  of  the 
grass  for  the  time  being,  the  spreading  of  stable  manure  is 
a  means  of  greatly  improving  the  productivity  of  a  pasture. 
Where  stable  manure  is  not  available  commercial  fertilizers 
may  be  used.  For  the  North  Atlantic  states  nitrogenous  fer- 
tilizers generally  give  the  best  results ;  but  for  the  North  Central 
states  fertilizers  containing  phosphoric  acid  as  well  as  nitrogen 
should  be  used. 

Continued  pasturage  by  cattle  not  otherwise  fed  may  slowly 
reduce  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  Fattening  animals  on  pasture 
or  feeding  grain  to  milch  cows  while  on  pasture  increases  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  by  returning  more  to  it  than  is  taken  from 
it.  Experiments  have  been  made  by  Lawes  and  Gilbert  which 
show  that  different  fertilizers  have  very  different  effects  on 
different  grasses  and  clovers.  They  find  that  the  most  complex 
herbage  occurs  on  unmanured  land,  that  potash  and  phosphoric 
acid  increase  the  proportion  of  leguminous  plants,  and  that 
nitrogen  and  green  manure  increase  the  proportion  of  grasses. 
The  yield  of  hay  was  increased  more  by  the  use  of  stable 
manure  and  nitrogen  than  by  the  use  of  phosphoric  acid  and 
potassium.  It  is  evident  that  with  different  kinds  of  fertilizers 
favoring  different  kinds  of  plants,  the  character  as  well  as 
the  kind  of  pasture  may  be  influenced  by  the  character  of  the 
food  fed  the  stock  which  feed  upon  the  pasture.  The  kind 
or  purpose  for  which  the  stock  is  used  may  affect  the  pasture 
for  a  similar  reason. 

3.  Pastures  may  be  improved  by  harrowing,  which  may  be 
done  with  a  spike  tooth  or  chain  harrow  in  order  to  spread 
the  droppings  of  the  cattle,  thus  not  only  increasing  the  produc- 
tion of  grass  but  also  its  palatability.    This  may  be  done  during 


36 


THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


rainy  periods  when  it  is  not  possible  to  use  the  teams  on  arable 
land,  while  the  harrowing  is  most  effectively  done  at  such  times. 

4.  Pastures  may  also  in  some 
cases  be  improved  by  clipping 
with  the  mowing-machine  where 
weeds  are  likely  to  go  to  seed 
or  where  from  want  of  sufficient 
pasturage  the  grasses  become 
woody  and  unpalatable.  Clip- 
ping, however,  is  likely  to  re- 
duce the  amount  of  pasturage 
for  the  time  being,  and  where 
pasture  is  scarce  may  not  be 
advisable. 


*  '  'm  •  M  M  M  M  M  M'lM'fl'K' 


II.    PRODUCTION  AND  HARVESTING 


mm^MgmmM 


i     i     1 


Chain  harrow  used  in  England  for 
improving  pastures 


34.  Distribution  and  Adapta- 
tion.— So  far  as  the  cultivated 
grasses  have  yet  been  extensive- 
ly introduced,  they  have  been 
found  best  adapted  to  that  por- 
tion of  the  United  States  east 
of  the  Missouri  River  and  north 
of  the  cotton  states.  While  there  are  certain  exceptions  where 
limestone  soils  exist — such  as  in  central  Kentucky — in  general, 
grasses  increase  in  adaptability  as  one  proceeds  northward  and 
eastward  in  the  United  States.  Not  only  are  the  North  Atlantic 
states  well  adapted  to  the  production  of  grasses,  but  they  are  less 
adapted  to  the  production  of  cereal  crops.  The  result  is  that  the 
proportion  of  the  total  farm  area  in  grasses  is  much  higher  in 
.these  states  than  elsewhere,  except  in  those  Rocky  Mountain 
states  where  range  conditions  still  exist.  It  has  been  fairly  well 
demonstrated  that  to  the  cotton  states  and  the  sub-humid  High 
Plains  area,  timothy,  blue  grass,  redtop,  and  orchard  grass  are 


PERENNIAL   FORAGE   GRASSES  37 

not  adapted.  Bermuda  grass,  however,  has  been  introduced  in 
the  south,  and  more  recently  smooth  brome  grass  has  been  in- 
troduced in  the  high  plains  region,  and  their  success  leads  to  the 
hope  that  these  or  yet  other  grasses  may  be  found  which  will 
be  adapted  to  these  large  areas  of  the  United  States. 


Percentage  of  the  improved  farm  land  in  hay  and  forage  in  1899 

35.  Yield. — The  average  yield  of  hay  from  the  tame  grasses 
in  the  United  States  in  1900  was  i.i  tons  per  acre,  and  did  not 
vary  greatly  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States.  A  yield 
of  2  tons  per  acre  of  well  cured  hay  is  usually  considered  a 
satisfactory  yield,  and  a  yield  of  3  tons  is  considered  rather 
unusual,  although  a  yield  of  9  tons  per  acre  has  been  reported. 
The  Cornell  Station  produced  47  tons  of  well  cured  timothy, 
red,  and  alsike  clover  hay  from  12  acres. 

The  yield  of  pasture  may  be  stated  in  the  number  of  animals 
supported  or  the  returns  obtained  therefrom.  An  acre  of  first- 
class  pasture  of  Kentucky  blue  grass  may  support  a  1,000-pouhd 
steer  and  produce  some  growth;  however,  one  such  animal  to 
2  acres  without  additional  food  is  perhaps  above  the  average. 
The  Illinpis  Station  suggests,  as  the  result  of  two  years'  trials, 
that  while  a  grain  ration  to  young  steers  on  good  pasture  may 
increase  the  rate  of  growth  in  the  'animals,  the  gains  rarely 
repay  the  cost  of  food  and  labor ;  and  that  it  is  doubtful  whether 


38  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

the  maintenance  of  cattle  or  an  increase  in  weight  could  be 
secured  so  cheaply  as  by  exclusive  pasturage  during  the  best 
of  the  grazing  season  upon  good  pastures  fully  but  not  over 
stocked.  If  profit  is  to  be  had  where  grain  is  fed  cattle  on 
pasture,  especially  if  the  grain  given  be  unground,  it  is  essential 
to  have  pigs  follow  the  cattle/  Milch  cows  on  pasture  may 
require  additional  food  throughout  the  season.  The  Penn- 
sylvania Station  found  that  where,  in  the  early  season,  enough 
stock  was  put  on  pasture  to  keep  the  grass  cropped  short,  the 
pasture  became  insufficient,  and  beginning  with  August  addi- 
tional feed  was  necessary." 

36.  Time  of  Harvesting. — The  proper  time  to  harvest  hay  is 
manifestly  when  the  largest  quantity  of  the  best  quality  can  be 
secured,  provided  the  expense  is  not  thereby  increased.  The 
quantity  may  be  sacrificed  to  improve  quality.  Quality  may  be 
sacrificed  to  increase  the  yield  or  to  decrease  the  expense  in 
harvesting.  The  expense  and  risk  of  securing  timothy  may  be 
greater  if  it  is  cut  early,  as  it  requires  more  handling  and 
longer  exposure  in  curing  than  if  cut  late. 

If  hay  is  to  be  marketed,  it  is  important  to  distinguish  be- 
tween food  value  and  market  value.  A  ton  of  early  cut  hay  may 
contain  more  valuable  nutrients  than  a  ton  of  late  cut  hay.  As  a 
food  for  milch  cows  the  former  would  doubtless  be  better  than 
the  latter.  Yet  the  later  cut  timothy  hay  may  have  the  higher 
market  value.  Growth  signifies  an  increase  of  weight.  A  crop 
of  grass  increases  in  weight  of  dry  substance  until  it  is  ripe. 
There  may  be  a  greater  loss  in  weight  in  the  matured  plant 
from  the  loss  of  seed,  in  the  case  of  timothy,  or  in  the  loss  of 
leaves  and  finer  parts  in  the  case  of  clover,  than  if  cut  earlier. 
When  ripe,  the  hay  is  practically  straw. 

1  Illinois  Sta.   Bui.  No.  9    (1890),  pp.   319-25. 

2  Pennsylvania  Sta.  Rpt.   (1889),  pp.  97-101. 


PERENNIAL  FORAGE  GRASSES  39 

A  summary  of  experiments  made  in  this  country  shows  that 
there  is  an  appreciable  increase  of  yield  of  the  grasses  from 
the  period  of  full  bloom  until  seeds  are  formed.  There  is  an 
increase  of  all  the  food  nutrients,  but  the  increase  is  most 
marked  in  the  crude  fiber,  starch,  sugar,  and  allied  substances. 
With  timothy,  orchard  grass,  and  meadow  fescue,  an  increase 
of  one-fourth,  from  the  period  of  full  bloom  until  seeds  were 
formed,  has  been  found.  With  the  clovers,  there  has  been  found 
a  decrease  in  all  the  nutrients,  with  the  exception  of  crude 
fiber,  in  which  there  is  sometimes  an  appreciable  increase.  The 
loss  of  the  leaves  and  finer  parts  in  handling  while  curing  is 
sometimes  sufficient  to  render  the  clover  hay  well  nigh  worth- 
less.    There  is  both  a  loss  of  weight  and  a  loss  in  quality. 

A  farmer  with  150  acres  of  hay  to  harvest  cannot  harvest 
it  all  at  the  theoretically  best  time.  If  he  sells  part  of  his  hay, 
it  is  prudent  to  sell  the  later  cut  hay.  It  has  less  food  value, 
pound  for  pound,  especially  for  growing  stock  and  milch  cows. 
In  many  localities  it  has  a  greater  market  value.  In  such  cases 
it  is  usually  intended  for  mature  horses,  for  which  purpose 
it  is  better  suited. 

37.  Curing  Hay. — The  aim  in  curing  a  fodder  crop  is  to 
preserve  the*  nutrients  with  the  least  loss  and  in  as  digestible 
and  palatable  a  form  as  may  be.  It  is  desired  to  secure  bright, 
clean  hay. 

The  quality  may  be  reduced  by  direct  washing  and  dissolving 
by  rains;  by  bleaching,  through  the  alternate  wetting  by  rains 
and  dews,  just  as  linen  is  bleached;  by  becoming  musty  through 
heating  or  fermentation;  or  by  the  loss  of  the  more  delicate 
and  more  valuable  parts,  as  the  leaves,  when  the  hay  is  too 
thoroughly  dried.  As  before  indicated,  the  latter  is  an  important 
reason  why  the  quality  of  clover  is  improved  by  curing  in 
cocks.  When  it  is  spread  thinly  on  the  ground  the  leaves 
become  dry  much  sooner  than  the  stems,  and  every  time  the 
clover  is  handled  the  leaves  are  broken  and  lost.     If,  on  the 


40 


THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


A  Hay  tedder;  fork  arms  made  of  boiler  tube  and 
coil  relief  spring 


other  hand,  the  clover  is  put  in  cocks  before  the  leaves  become 
dry,  the  stems  and  leaves  transpire  or  evaporate  the  water 
through  the  leaves  much  as  they  do  when  the  plant  is  growing. 

The  moisture  of  the 
stems  passes  off 
through  the  leaves. 
This  is  the  sweating 
of  hay.  The  water 
collects  on  the  outer 
surface  of  the  stems 
and  leaves,  because 
it  is  imprisoned 
there  by  the  sur- 
rounding material. 

Another  reason  for 
placing  hay  in  cocks 
is  to  prevent  the 
direct  washing  and  leaching  by  rains.  If  an  inch  of  rain  falls 
upon  an  acre  of  hay  in  the  swath  the  hay  is  likely  to  be  washed 
by  nearly  all  the  rain  that  falls,  or  3,630  cubic  feet;  but  if  the 
hay  is  in  cocks  occupying,  say  one-twentieth  the  area,  then 
it  will  be  washed  with  only  182  cubic  feet,  and  as  the  water 
will  be  more  or  less  shed  from  the  cock  much  of  the  hay 
will  be  untouched. 

It  is  not  feasible  in  many  places,  however,  to  cure  hay  in 
the  cock,  on  account  of  the  extra  labor  necessary  Much  hay 
is  now  put  in  the  barn  or  stack  on  the  day  after  it  is  cut.  Hay 
rakes,  loaders,  and  horse  forks  make  it  possible  to  do  this  with 
but  little  hand  labor,  while  if  put  in  cock  much  hand  labor  is  nec- 
essary. On  the  other  hand,  where  only  a  limited  quantity  is  to 
be  handled,  it  is  often  more  convenient  and  more  economical 
to  put  the  hay  in  cock.  The  method  of  handling  hay  depends 
much  upon  circumstances,  the  main  element  being  the  cost  of 
a  given  method  under  given  conditions.     Other  things  equal. 


PERENNIAL   FORAGE   GRASSES 


41 


the  less  the  hay  is  handled  the  better  the  quality,  as  at  every 
movement  some  of  the  finer  parts  may  be  lost. 


III.        HAY     MAKING     MA- 
CHINES   AND    MARKETING 

38.  Mowing-machines 
are  almost  all  of  one 
type,  in  which  the  cutter 
bar  is  placed  at  one  side 
of  the  drive  wheels 
(165),  although  there 
is  a  type  in  which  the 
cutter  bar  operates  be- 
tween the  drive  wheels, 
one  horse  walking  in  the 
standing  grass.  The  es- 
sential features  of  the 
mowing-machine  are: 
(i)  the  drive  wheel,  (2) 

the  pitman,  (3)  the  reciprocating  sickle  operating  through 
fixed  guards,  and  (4)  the  divider  by  which  the  cut  grass  is 
divided  from  that  which  is  standing.     The  sickle  is  made  of 

plain  or  smooth  sec- 
tions which  are  kept 
ground  to  a  sharp 
cutting  edge.  (C.  A. 
163)  The  ready  ad- 
justment of  the  cut- 
ter bar  is  accom- 
plished by  various 
methods.  The  length  of  the  cutter  bar  varies  from  three  feet 
six  inches  to  seven  feet — the  most  common  size  for  two  horses, 
perhaps,  being  five  to  six  feet;  the  larger  sizes  are  used  in 


Different  styles  of  hay  tedder  arms:  B  Coil  spring; 

C  flat  relief  spring;  D  flat  relief  spring 

sprung;  E  coil  relief  spring 


A  Revolving  hay  rake 


42 


THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


B  Sulky  hay  rake 


the  more  level  sections.     A  one-horse  mower  is  inade  having 
cutter  bar  three  feet  six  inches  and  four  feet  in  length. 

39.    Hay  Rakes. — Several  kinds  of  machines  for  raking  hay 
into  windrows  have  been  invented: 

A.    The  wooden  revolving  hay  rake  is  drawn  by  one  horse 
and  is  made  in  widths,  varying  from  9  to  10  feet.     The  hay  is 

released  by  the  op- 
erator raising  the 
handle,  which  causes 
the  rake  to  revolve, 
thu5  passing  over 
the  hay  that  has 
been  gathered 

B,  The  sulky 
springtooth  hay  rake 
is  made  in  widths  varying  from  8  to  12  feet,  with  from  20  to 
32  teeth,  the  wider  rakes  being  for  two  horses  and  the  narrower 
rakes  for  one  horse  The  hay  is  released,  or  "dumped,"  by 
pulling  back  the  hand  lever,  shown  in  the  illustration,  or  by 
pressing  a  foot  lever,  which  by  means  of  a  clutch  causes  the 
wheel  to  dump  the  rake. 

C.  The  side  de- 
livery hay  rake 
working  somewhat 
on  the  principle  of 
a  hay  tedder,  re- 
moves the  hay  to 
one  side  of  the  ma- 
chine and  leaves  it 
in  a  continuous 
windrow.      This   re- 


C  Side  delivery  hay  rake 


quires  nothing  of  the  operator  but  to  drive  the  team,  and  allows 
the  hay  loader  to  follow  immediately  if  desired.    The  standard 


PERENNIAL  FORAGE  GRASSES 


43 


width  of  this  machine  is  about  8  feet.    To  get  the  space  covered 
the  width  of  the  windrow  must  be  added.    Two  horses  are  used. 


D  Reversible  side  delivery  hay  rake 

D.  The  reversible  side  delivery  hay  rake  picks  the  hay  up 
by  means  of  a  cylinder  on  which  are  mounted  gathering  fingers. 
The  elevator  deposits  the  hay  upon  an  endless  carrier,  which 
may  be  operated  in  either  direction,  thus  depositing  the  hay 
upon  either  side  of  the  rake.  The  rake  is  eight  feet  wide  and 
is  drawn  by  two  horses. 

E.  The  sweep  hay  rake  is  used  for  stacking  hay  in  the  field. 
The  hay  may  be  gathered  from  swath,  windrow,  or  cock  when 
it  is  drawn  directly 
to  the  stack.  The 
hay  may  then  be 
placed  upon  the 
stack  with  the  horse 
hay  fork,  or  more 
commonly,  by  means  of  the  hay  stacker.     (See  42  £  ) 

F.  The  push  power  or  rear  hitch  sweep  hay  rake  permits 
the    gathering    of    the    hay    close    to    fences    and    irrigating 


E  Sweep  hay  rake 


44 


THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


Push  power  sweep  rake 


ditches,  and  enables  it  to  pass  more  readily  through  gates  and 

over  culverts. 

G.  The  windrower  is  a  simple  attachment  to  a  mowing- 
machine,  particular- 
ly designed  for  har- 
vesting clover  and 
alfalfa  for  seed,  but 
may  also  be  em- 
ployed when  these 
crops  are  used  for 
hay.     (165) 

40.  Hay  Tedders  are  made  with  six  and  eight  forks  and  for 
one  or  two  horses.  The  fork  arms  may  be  made  of  wood  or 
of  boiler  tube.  The  fork  may  be  two  or  three-tined,  and  may 
have  B  a  coil  spring,  E  a  coil  relief  spring,  or  C,  D  a  flat  relief 
spring.  Care  should  be  taken  to  use  the  tedder  before  the  hay 
becomes  too  dry,  in 
order  to  prevent  loss 
of  the  finer  and  more 
valuable  parts. 

41.  Hay  Loaders. — 
In  those  sections  of 
the  country  where  the 
climatic  conditions  or 
the  kind  of  hay  raised 
make  it  possible  to 
cure  it  satisfactorily 
without  placing  in 
cocks,  where  the  fields 
are  fairly  level  and 
the  hay  is  not  stacked 


B  Hay  loader;  compare  with  A 


in  the  field,  the  hay  loader  is  extensively  used.  Under  these 
conditions  the  mowing-machine,  the  side  delivery  hay  rake,  and 
the  hay  loader  are  the  three  machines  which  the  hay  maker 
uses  in  the  field. 


PERENNIAL    FORAGE   GRASSES 


45 


A  Hay  loader;  compare  with  B 


Hay  loaders  are  of  two  general  types: 

A.  In  one  type  the  hay  is  picked  up  from  the  swath  or 
windrow  by  means  of  a  gathering  cylinder,  from  which  it  is 
conveyed  by  means  of  a  carrier  to  the  load. 

B.  In  the  other  type  the  rakes  engage  the  hay,  moving  it 
forward  and  upward,  where  it  is  engaged  by  the  revolving  teeth, 
which  automatically  push 
up  and  let  go  as  suc- 
ceeding teeth  engage  the 
hay. 

Each  type  has  its  ad- 
vantages and  disadvan- 
tages. The  last  men- 
tioned type  pushes  the 
hay  constantly  forward; 
as  there  is  no  return  car- 
rier which  tends  to  drag 
the  hay  backward,  it  is  easier  for  the  loader.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  first  mentioned  type  agitates  the  hay  less  and  hence 
is  less  likely  to  break  off  the  finer  and  more  valuable  parts. 

42.  Stacking. — Where  hay  is  placed  in  the  barn,  a  wooden 
or  iron  track  is  usually  placed  in  the  ridge  of  the  roof  on  which 
a  hay  carrier  runs.  The  hay  is  thus  elevated  from  the  load  by 
horse  power  to  any  desired  height  and  dropped  at  a  convenient 
spot  for  distribution  in  the  mow. 

Different  devices  are  used  where  it  is  desired  to  place  the 
hay  in  stacks ;  A  and  B  show  forms  that  may  be  used  by  cutting 
poles  from  the  woodlot  and  using  the  same  rope  that  was  em- 
ployed in  putting  the  hay  into  the  barn,  with  some  additional 
guy  ropes.  In  D  a  separate  wire  rope  is  used,  on  which  runs 
an  ordinary  rope  hay  carrier. 

The  large  swinging  hay  derricks  C  are  used  in  the  alfalfa 
regions  in  the  West  where  it  is  desired  to  build  large  stacks. 
The  hay  stackers  E  are  used  when  the  hay  is  stacked  in  the 


46  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


^     ■•!■:>•  :'^- ^''^ffeMiii^^g^fe^ 


Devices  for  stacking  hay 


PERENNIAL  FORAGE  GRASSES 


47 


field  and  where  the  sweep  rake   (39  E)   is  used  to  bring  the 
hay  to  the  stack. 

43.  Hay  Forks. — The  general  types  of  forks  for  unloading 
hay  are  shown  in  this  paragraph  and  do  not  need  further 
description.  The  harpoon  forks  are  generally  most  popular 
where  the  hay  is  long 
and  thus  holds  together 
well,  as  in  the  case  of 
timothy  hay;  while  for 
clover  and  alfalfa  the 
grapple  or  derrick  hay 
fork  is  frequently  pre- 
ferred. In  some  cases 
rope  slings  are  used. 
They  are  made  in  the 
form  indicated  in  E,  or 
consist  of  single  pairs  of 
ropes  with  suitable  rings 
at  the  ends.  One  pair  of 
ropes  is  placed  length- 
wise of  the  wagon,  and 
a  fourth  of  a  load  of  hay 
is  put  on;  then  another 
pair  of  ropes  is  adjusted 
and  another  fourth  of 
the  load  is  added;  and 
so  on  until  the  load  is 
completed.  The  hay  is 
therefore  removed  in 
four  slingfuls,  thus  ma- 
king the  unloading  quite  rapid.  The  disadvantages  are  that 
time  must  be  taken  to  adjust  the  ropes,  and,  in  case  of  an  ac- 
cident, in  unloading  much  hand  labor  may  be  required  to  build 
the  hay  over  the  slings  again. 


A  Double  harpoon  fork;  B  single  harpoon  fork:  C 
grapple  hay  fork:  D  derrick  hay  fork:  E  standard 
wagon  sling. 


48 


THE   FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


Belt  power  hay  baling-  press  in  operation.    May  be 
operated  by  horse,  steam,  or  gasoline  power 


44.  Baling. — An  eight-foot  cube,  or  512  cubic  feet  of  well 
settled  hay  in  stack  or  mow,  is  generally  estimated  to  weigh 
a  ton  of  2,000  pounds.  Different  parts  of  the  stack  or  mow 
will  vary  in  density  on  account  of  differences  in  pressure  and 
age,  as  will  stacks  or  mows  of  different  sizes.     There  are  no 

data  concerning  the  in- 
fluence of  the  character 
of  the  hay  upon  its  den- 
sity, although  doubtless 
redtop  hay  would  have 
a  greater  density  than 
timothy  hay,  and  tim- 
othy hay  a  greater  den- 
sity than  clover  hay. 

When  hay  is  baled 
to  increase  the  con- 
venience and  reduce 
the  cost  of  transportation  it  is  ordinarily  reduced  to  from  one- 
fourth  to  one-sixth  the  bulk  occupied  in  the  stack  or  mow. 
There  is  considerable  variation  in  the  density  obtained  by  dif- 
ferent baling  machines,  the  tendency  being  to  increase  the 
density.  Where  hay  is  to  be  shipped  long  distances  it  is  some- 
times rebaled  by  hydraulic  pressure  to  a  density  of  55  cubic 
feet  to  the  ton. 

Hay  baling  presses  differ  principally  in  the  size  and  shape 
of  the  bales  produced,  and  the  kind,  amount,  and  direction  of 
the  power  applied.  The  bale  chamber  is  usually  made  in  three 
sizes  in  continuous  presses — namely,  14x18,  16x18,  and  17x22 
inches.  The  length  of  the  bale  may  be  varied  within  certain 
limits  by  varying  the  length  of  bale  wire  used.  The  length 
of  bale  commonly  varies  from  38  to  42  inches. 

Hay  presses  may  be  divided  into  continuous  presses  and 
box  presses.  In  the  former  the  power  is  applied  horizontally, 
while  in  the  latter  it  is  applied  vertically.     Continuous  presses 


PERENNIAL   FORAGE   GRASSES  -  49 

may  be  operated  by  belt  or  by  lever.  The  horse  power  lever 
presses  are  made  either  with  a  reversible  lever  or  with  a  full 
circle  lever.  The  box  hay  presses  are  operated  by  horse  power 
or  by  hand. 

The  weight  of  the  hay  bale  is  variable,  but  in  general  the 
markets  recognize  three  sizes:  large  bales  weigh  from  200  to 
250  pounds,  medium  bales  from  120  to  150  pounds,  and  small 
bales  from  80  to  100  pounds.  In  some  markets  the  small  bales 
are  known  as  "quarters"  or  "thirds,"  and  the  medium  bales  as 
"halves"  or  "three-quarters,"  depending  somewhat  on  the 
weight.  Different  markets  prefer  different  sizes  of  bales  at 
different  times  or  for  differnt  grades.  In  general,  the  smaller 
bales  are  preferred  in  the  smaller  cities  or  towns  and  for  the 
lower  grades  of  hay.^ 

45.  Marketing. — Hay  buyers  may  sell  either  on  commission 
or  to  dealers  f .  o.  b.  cars  at  local  station.  In  selling  on  com- 
mission there  are  three  items  of  expense — namely,  freight, 
inspection,  and  commission.  As  in  the  case  of  cereals,  there 
is  in  the  larger  cities  some  agency  for  the  official  determina- 

^  The  cities  of  Boston,  New  York,  and  Jersey  City  prefer  a  bale  weighing 
200  pounds,  style  of  bale  commonly  known  as  the  upright  bale,  using  a  seven- 
foot  three-inch  dimension  tie. 

The  city  of  Philadelphia  prefers  a  small  block  bale  weighing  90  to  100 
pounds,  size  either  14x18  or  16x18,  using  an  eight-foot  three-inch  dimension 
tie  for  their  medium  grades  of  hay;  but  for  No.  1  choice,  they  prefer  the 
upright  bale,   same   style  as  New  York  and  Boston, 

Baltimore  prefers  the  three-quarter  loose  pressed  bale,  weighing  120  to 
150  pounds,  and  the  sma4J  block  bale,  weighing  from  90  to  100  pounds.  The 
three-quarter  size  bale  should  be  17x22,  and  the  small  block  either  14x18  or 
16x18,    in    each    case    using   the    eight-foot    three-inch    dimension    tie. 

The  Pittsburg  market  prefers  the  three-quarter  bale.  They  do  not  seem 
to  be  in  the  least  partial  to  the  small  block  bale. 

Washington  and  Cincinnati  prefer  the  small  block  bale,  weighing  90  to 
100  pounds,  using  the  same  length  of  tie  as  given  above, 

Chicago,  St.  Louis,  and  Kansas  City  prefer  the  quarter  bales,  weighing  from 
80  to  90  pounds,  size  14x18,  using  a  seven-foot  six-inch  tie. — Report  of  Com- 
mittee on  Standard  Bales  to  Nat.  Hay  Assoc;  in  Flour  Trade  News, 
August,   1906, 


50  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

tion  of  the  grades  of  hay,   which  is  binding  upon  buyer  and 
seller.     (C.  A.  191) 

46.  Commercial  Grades. — The  commercial  grades  vary  some- 
what in  the  different  cities,  but  in  general  are  based  upon  the 
same  factors — principally  the  purity,  color,  and  quality  of  the 
hay,  and  the  character  of  the  baling.  The  word  "hay"  in 
American  markets,  when  not  otherwise  qualified,  is  construed 
to  mean  timothy  hay,  and  any  other  plant,  even  though  it  be 
a  cultivated  grass,  is  considered  an  impurity.  The  color  and 
quality  depend  largely  on  the  time  of  cutting  and  on  the  curing, 
but  they  also  depend  somewhat  on  locality.  Some  localities 
produce  a  timothy  which  cures  a  greener  color  than  others. 
There  are,  therefore,  only  certain  localities  which  produce 
prime  hay.  Whether  these  differences  are  due  to  climate,  soil, 
cultural  methods,  or  to  the  strains  of  seed  used  has  not 
been  determined. 

The  table  following  gives  the  classes  and  grades  of  hay 
recognized  by  the  New  York  Hay  Exchange.  The  price  per 
ton  on  a  given  day  is  included  to  show  the  relative  value  placed 
upon  the  different  grades  by  the  trade.  These  values  will 
vary  relatively  from  time  to  time,  depending  on  the  supply 
and  demand. 

Rules  for  Grading  Hay 

Price 

per  ton 

Prime  Timothy  Hay — Shall  be  pure  timothy  of  medium  growth,  bright 

color,   sweet,   sound,   and   well  baled     .....  $23.00 

No.  1  Hay — Shall  be  timothy,  not  more  than  one-eighth  (%)  mixed 
with  other  tame  grasses,  exclusive  of  clover,  bright  color, 
sweet,    sound,    and   well    baled        .         .         .         .         .         .22.00 

No.  2  Hay — Shall  include  all  timothy  not  good  enough  for  No.  1,  fair 
in  color,  not  more  than  one-eighth  (%)  other  tame  grasses 
exclusive  of  clover,  sound,  and  well  baled  .         .         .         .19.50 

No.  3  Hay — Shall  include  all  hay  not  good  enough  for  other  grades, 
not  over  one-third  (1/3)  clover,  free  from  wild  or  bog, 
sound,   and  well   baled 16.00 


PERENNIAL    FORAGE   GRASSES  5I 

Shipping  Hay — Shall  consist  of  hay  not  good  enough  for  No.  3,  sound, 

and  well   baled $14.00 

No  Grade  Hay — Shall  include  all  hay  badly  cured,  stained,  threshed,  or 

in  any  way  unsound       .......         Nominal 

No.    1    Packing  Hay — Shall  consist  of  all   fine  grasses,   of  good  color, 

free  from  flag  or  thistles,  sound,  and  well  baled         .         .     11.00 

Fancy  Clover  Mixed  Hay — Shall  be  bright,  green,  sweet  clover,  and 
timothy  of  medium  growth,  containing  not  over  one-third 
(1/3)   clover,  sound,  and  well  baled 18.00 

No.  1  Clover  Mixed  Hay — Shall  be  clover  and  timothy,  medium  growth, 
with  at  least  one-half  (yi)  clover,  bright  color,  swee^, 
sound,   and   well   baled 17.00 

No.   2  Clover  Mixed   Hay — Shall   be  clover  and  timothy,   with   at   least 

one-half   (>^)   clover,   fair  color,  sound,  and  well  baled       .     15.00 

No.  1  Clover  Hay — Shall  be  bright,  medium  growth,  sweet,  sound,  and 

well    baled 16.00 

No.  2  Clover  Hay — Shall  be  clover  of  fair  color,  sound,  and  well  baled     14.00 

47.  Collateral  Reading. — William  Jasper  Spillman:  Farm  Grasses  of  the 
United  States,  pp.  14-55.     New  York:   Orange  Judd  Co.,  1905. 

Harry  Snyder:  Soils  and  Fertilizers  (sec.  ed.),  pp.  225,  226;  241-5.  Easton, 
Pa.:   The   Chemical    Publishing  Co.,    1905. 

Isaac  Phillips  Roberts:  The  Fertility  of  the  Land,  pp.  207-213.  New  York. 
The  Macmillan   Co.,   1897. 

W.  A.  Henry:  Feeds  and  Feeding,  pp.  178-185.  Madison,  Wisconsin: 
The  Author,    1900. 

Jared  G.  Smith:  Meadows  and  Pastures.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  BuL 
No.  66   (1899),  pp.  7-15. 


Ill 


PERENNIAL   FORAGE   GRASSES 

I.     TIMOTHY 

48.  Name. — Timothy  (Phleiim  pratense  L.)  ;  synonyms: 
Herd's  grass,  meadow  cat's  tail.  The  name  timothy  comes  from 
Timothy  Hanson  or  Hanso,  of  Maryland,  who  is  said  to  have 
introduced  the  seed  from  England  in  1720  and  who  is  respon- 
sible for  its  distribution  through  Virginia  and  Carolina.  The 
name  Herd's  grass  is  from  John  Herd,  who  is  said  to  have 
found  it  growing  wild  in  a  swamp  in  New  Hampshire  as  early 
as  1700  and  began  its  cultivation,  resulting  in  its  distribution 
through  New  England  and  New  York.  Meadow  cat's  tail, 
the  oldest  name  given  to  the  grass,  is  due  to  the  appearance 
of  the  head. 

49.  Relationships. — Timothy  is  closely  related  to  meadow  fox- 
tail and  is  the  only  cultivated  grass  for  which  it  could  with 
any  possibility  be  mistaken.  The  latter,  however,  may  be 
distinguished  by  its  shorter  and  more  ovate  head,  the  bent 
dorsal  awn  of  the  flowering  glume,  and  differences  in  the  shape 
of  the  grain  and  of  the  outer  glumes.  There  are  about  ten 
more  or  less  definitely  recognized  species  of  the  genus  Phleum, 
the  most  important  of  which,  aside  from  the  species  under  con- 
sideration, is  mountain  timothy  {Phleum  alpinum  L.). 

50.  Description. — The  plant,  as  compared  with  other  perennial 
forage  grasses,  has  rather  deep  roots.  Stolons  are  commonly, 
although  apparently  not  always,  present.  Culms  vary  in  height 
from  a  few  inches  to  6  feet,  commonly  2  to  4  feet.  They  are 
usually  rigid  and  erect,  although  sometimes  decumbent  at  the 
base,  prostrate,  or  even  kneed.    Usually  there  are  two  to  seven 

52 


PERENNIAL   FORAGE   GRASSES 


53 


nodes  to  each  culm,  each  bearing  a  leaf,  although  the  lower 
node  may  not.  Usually  one,  and  occasionally  more,  of  the  lower 
internodes  is  swollen  to  form  one  or  more  corms  or  tubers. 
This  character  which  dis- 
tinguishes it  from  other 
forage  grasses  is  most  fully 
developed  on  dry  soils  and 
may,  it  is  said,  disappear 
entirely  when  the  plant  is 
grown  in  wet  places.  Oc- 
casionally tuberous  branches 
may  occur  on  the  upper 
part  of  the  stem.^  There  is 
a  large  proportion  of  culm 
to  basal  leaves,  which,  with 
its  accompanying  leaves  is 
easily  cured  into  hay. 

The  leaf  blade  varies  in 
thickness  and  color,  com- 
mon variations  being  from 
one-eighth  to  three-eighth 
inch  in  width,  and  from  3 
to  15  or  more  inches  in 
length.  The  radicle  or  basal 
leaves  vary  also  in  erectness,  these  with  long,  erect  blades  being 
best  for  hay. 

The  inflorescence  is  usually  called  a  spike,  although  in  reality 
it  is  a  contracted  panicle,  which  form  it  not  infrequently  as- 
sumes. It  usually  varies  from  2  to  7  inches  in  length,  extremes 
of  two-tenths  to  13  inches  having  been  reported;  in  width, 
two-tenths  to  five-tenths  of  an  inch.  It  also  varies  in  the  com- 
pactness of  the  spikelets.  Compact  spikelets  produce  harsh, 
firm,  rigid  heads,  while  in  some  cases  the  head  caruiot  maintain 


Proliferous  (left)  and  normal  vright)  inflor- 
escence of  timothy 


1  Vermont  Sta.  Bui.  No.  94   (1902),  p.  144. 


54  THE    FORAGE   AND   "FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

itself  on  account  of  the  loose  arrangement  of  the  spikelets 
The  spikelets  are  one-flowered.  The  flowering 
glume  is  hyaline,  toothed,  awnless,  much  shorter 
than  the  outer  glumes;  the  palea  is  hyaline  and 
quite  narrow?*'  The  outer  glumes  are  truncate, 
with  stiff  hairs  on  the  keel  which  extends  into  a 
point  or  short  awn  less  than  half  the  length  of 
the  glume. 

51.    Seed. — The  naked  seed  or  caryopsis  is  ovoid, 
one-fifteenth  to  one-twelfth  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
usually  enclosed  in  the  flowering  glume  and  palea 
but  free  from  them;  hence  when  closely  threshed 
or  re-cleaned,  many  naked  seeds  occur.     Timothy 
seed  is  not  ordinarily  subject  to  much  adulteration. 
The  most  common  foreign  grass  seeds  are  redtop, 
fowl    meadow,    and    the    foxtails.      Fresh,    well- 
ripened  seed  has  a  silvery-white  appearance,  which 
may,   however,   be   discolored   if   the   seed   is   wet 
during  the  harvest  season.    Timothy  seed  may  oc  • 
cur  on  the  market  in  three  sizes,  as 
follows:    (i)    About   600,000   to   the 
pound;    (2)    1,200,000  to  the  pound; 
and  (3)  2,000,000  to  the  pound. 
The  relative  value  of  these  grades 
A  head  of  tim-  ^as  not  been  determined,  although  the  ^^.^^^^^  ^^  ^^^ 
othy  in    tho  result  of  two  years'  trial  at  the  Cor-      othy.     En. 
formofapan-   nell  Station  was  slightly  in  favor  of      '^^^^    ^°"» 
the  large  seed,  both  when  the  same 
weight  and  when  the  same  number  of  seeds  were  sown  per  acre. 
At  the  Utah  Station  no  material  difference  in  yield  was  found 
between  seeds  of  high  and  low  specific  gravity.     The  standard 
of  germination  is  90  per  cent,  and  the  purity  should  not  be  less 
than  98  per  cent. 
Timothy  is  cut  for  seed  with  the  self-binding  harvester  and 


TERENNIAL  FORAGE  GRASSES 


55 


placed  in  shocks  without  caps.  In  a  few  days  it  is  ready  for 
threshing  by  the  same  machinery  used  for  small  cereals  by 
changing  the  sieves  and  adjusting  the  concaves.  The  usual 
yield  of  seed  per  acre  is  from  400  to  500  pounds.  The  legal 
weight  per  bushel  is  45  pounds 
in  the  states  and  48  pounds  in 
Canada. 

52.  Variations. — While  three  or 
four  varieties  or  forms  of  tim- 
othy have  been  recognized  by 
botanists,  and  while  timothy  is 
known  to  vary  widely  in  yield, 
duration,  time  of  blooming,  and 
character  of  growth,  evidently 
both  on  account  of  environ- 
ment and  heredity,  as  yet  no  va- 
rieties have  been  commercially  "^'"^^'^^  ^^^^  ""^  "^  impurities, 
distributed  in  America.  While 
the  species  as  a  type  is  perennial, 
certain  individuals  are  at  best 
only  fall  annuals,  as  in  the  case 
of  winter  wheat;  while  others  are 
biennial,  the  duration  evidently 
depending  on  the  extent  of  the 
vegetative  multiplication  of  the 
individual  seedling.     A  variation 

of  three  weeks  has  been  observed  in  the  time  of  blooming.^ 

53.  Improvement. — Hopkins  in  1893  in  West  Virginia  began 
■•the  selection  of  timothy  and  the  propagation  of  the  seleded 
*  strains.    These  strains  are  now  in  the  possession  of  the  Division 

of  Agrostology  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
In   1903  the  Cornell   Station  obtained  timothy  seed  from  231 

i  Samuel  Fraser:  Thesis:  A  Study  of  Timothy,  M.  S.  degree,  Cornell  Uni- 
versity, 1905. 


1. 

Timothy  (Phleum  pratense"*  without  and 
with  the  glumes:  2.  pepper  grass 
(Lepidium  mrginicum) ,  3.  Potentilla 
monspeliensis;  4.  sorrel  (Rumex  ace- 
fosella);  5.  oxeye  daisy  {chrysanthe- 
mum leucanthemum) ;  6.  rib  grass 
plantain  '  Plantago  lanceolata ) ;  7. 
Vervain  (Verbena  hastata);  8.  witch 
grass  iPanicum  capi'llare);  9.  crab 
grass  (Panicum  sanguinale) ;  1 0. 
dodder  iCuscuta  Mfolii)— the  small 
figures  natural  size. 

(After  Hicks) 


56  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

sources,  including  21  states,  nine  European  countries,  Canada, 
and  Japan.  From  this  seed  and  its  progeny,  about  20,000  in- 
dividual plants  have  been  produced,  and  from  these  plants  22 
types  have  been  selected  for  propagation.  The  observations 
thus  far  made  indicate  that  yield  and  time  of  blooming  are 
characters  which  may  be  propagated  by  seed  alone,  and  lead 
to  the  hope  that  other  characters  may  be  also.  For  example, 
it   may   be   that   strains   of   timothy   will   be   developed   better 


Timothy  breeding  nursery  at  Cornell  Station 

adapted  to  pasturage  than  the  present  type,  which,  with 
timothy's  present  quality  of  producing  abundantly  the  year  after 
seed  is  sown,  would  make  them  desirable  in  systems  of  rotation. 
It  has  not  been  determined  fully  whether  timothy  is  close  or 
cross-fertilized.  It  seems  probable  from  investigations  thus 
far  made  that  it  is  self-fertilized  or  fertilized  by  pollen  from 
the  same  head,  and  also  cross-fertilized  within  narrow  limits. 
In  all  attempts  to  improve  timothy,  methods  should  be  based 
on  the  assumption  that  cross-fertilization  is  possible.  It  has 
been  shown  that  a  single  culm  does  not  ordinarily  stay  in  bloom 
more  than  two  days;  thus  a  difference  of  more  than  two  days 
in  time  of  blooming  would  prevent  cross-fertilization.  In  some 
instances,  however,  a  head  may  stay  in  bloom  for  seven  days. 


PERENNIAL  FORAGE  GRASSES  57 

54.  Adaptation. — Timothy  is  indigenous  throughout  the  tem- 
perate regions,  except  in  Australia.  As  a  cultivated  grass,  it  is 
especially  adapted  to  the  North  Atlantic  and  North  Central 
states  east  of  the  Missouri  River.  Nowhere  else  in  the  world  is 
timothy  so  well  and  favorably  known.  It  is  pre-eminently  the 
hay  plant  of  the  grass  family  in  the  United  States.  No  other 
plant  of  the  grass  family  compares  with  it  in  extent  of  produc- 
tion for  hay.  It  is  almost  exclusively  the  hay  of  commerce  in 
the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States.  Redtop,  clover,  and 
alfalfa  are  sold  to  some  extent,  but  the  amount  is  small  com- 
pared with  timothy. 

Timothy  is  better  adapted  to  clay  than  to  sandy  soils,  to  moist 
than  to  dry  climates.  It  is  at  its  best  on  moist  and  fertile 
soils.  On  soil  of  light  sandy  character  that  had  been  cropped 
for  three  years  in  potatoes,  the  Minnesota  Station  obtained, 
as  an  average  for  three  years,  .74  ton  of  timothy  hay;  on  low 
soil  well  supplied  with  moisture  the  average  for  two  years  was 
1.76  tons;  while  on  new  land,  low,  and  five  years  from  breaking, 
the  yield  at  the  first  cutting  was  2.17  tons.^ 

It  is  perfectly  hardy  in  the  most  northern  portions  of  the 
United  States  and  throughout  Canada,  and  has  been  found 
satisfactory  in  meadows  and  in  pastures  in  Alaska.  The  Rhode 
Island  Station  reports  that  timothy  does  not  thrive  on  very  acid 
soils  until  lime,  wood  ashes,  or  else  very  large  and  continuous 
applications  of  stable  manure  are  made.^ 

55.  Rotations. — Timothy  enters  into  nearly  all  rotations  in  the 
North  Atlantic  and  North  Central  states  and  usually  occurs  for 
two  or  more  years.  The  most  common  rotation  consists  of 
ir.aize,  oats,  and  wheat  each  one  year,  followed  by  timothy  and 
clover  for  two  or  .more  years,  the  clover  disappearing  after 
one  or  more  years.     At  the  North  Dakota  Station  four  crops 

1  Minnesota  Sta.  Bui.  No.  81    (1903),  p.   197. 

2  Rhode  Island  Sta.  Bui.  No.  99    (1904),   p.   101. 


58  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

of  wheat  after  two  crops  of  timothy  yielded  on  an  aiverage 
nearly  six  bushels  of  wheat  more  per  acre  than  wheat  grown 
continuously  on  adjacent  land,  giving  better  results  than  were 
obtained  by  rotating  with  cultivated  crops.^ 

56.  Amount  of  Seed. — When  sown  alone  it  is  customary  to 
sow  15  pounds  or  one-third  of  a  bushel  per  acre;  when  sown 
with  red  clover,  9  pounds  or  one-fifth  of  a  bushel  per  acre.  The 
Cornell  Station  has  sown  amounts  varying  from  5  to  35  pounds 
per  acre.  The  results  of  two  seasons'  trial  indicate  that  15 
pounds  per  acre  is  a  desirable  quantity  when  sown  alone.  The 
Utah  Station  sowed  timothy  seed  at  the  rate  of  8,  16,  24,  and 
32  quarts  per  acre.  The  two  extremes  gave  the  smallest  yields. 
The  Rhode  Island  Station  recommends  for  meadows  15  pounds 
of  timothy  seed,  7.5  pounds  of  cleaned  fancy  redtop,  and  7.5 
pounds  of  red  clover  seed  per  acre;  if  clover  is  omitted,  20 
pounds  of  timothy  and  10  pounds  of  redtop.  The  Minnesota 
Station  recommends  timothy  7,  red  clover  6,  and  brome  grass 
4  pounds  for  grass  to  lie  two  to  three  years  in  the  rotation  in 
southwestern  Minnesota;  to  lie  three  to  five  years,  timothy  7, 
red  clover  6,  brome  grass  10  pounds.  For  meadows  that  are 
to  be  broken  up  at  the  end  of  the  second  year,  the  following 
mixture  has  been  used  to  advantage  at  the  Ontario  Agricultural 
College :  red  clover  6,  alsike  3,  timothy  4,  perennial  rye  grass 
2  pounds.  For  economic  reasons,  perennial  rye  grass  may  some- 
times be  omitted  from  this  mixture  and,  in  case  the  land  is  to 
be  pastured  part  of  the  time,  be  replaced  by  orchard  grass." 
When  sown  with  clover,  the  South  Dakota  Station  recom- 
mends timothy  11  and  clover  2  pounds,  with  variations  to 
suit  conditions. 

57.  Seeding. — Timothy  may  be  sown  either  in  the  fall  or  in 
the  spring  with  any  small  grain  that  is  sown  at  the  time.  A  good 

» North  Dakota  Sta.  Bui.  No.  43    (1900),  p.  541. 

« Ontario  Agr.  Col.  &  Expt.  Farm  Rpt.   (1895),  p.  185. 


PERENNIAL   FORAGE   GRASSES 


59 


Stand  will  be  obtained  oftener,  probably,  by  sowing  in  the  fall, 
except  in  the  dry  prairie  states  of  the  Northwest,  where  spring 
sowing  is  best.  The  seed  should  be  well  covered  and  probably 
more  deeply  than  is  the  general  practise.  Sowing  the  seed 
in  front  of  the  hoes  of  the  wheat  drill  brings  good  average 
results  in  some  localities,  while  sowing  behind  the  hoes  is 
preferred  in  other  sections.  Timothy  may  be  sown  with  any 
small  cereal,  but  probably  rye  is  the  best  and  oats  the  poorest 
crop  for  this  purpose.  In  some  localities  it  is  sown  alone  in 
the  autumn  and  a  crop  harvested  the  following  summer.     (25) 

58.  Time  of  Cutting. — Timothy  is  what  is  called  a  late  grass, 
being  ready  to  cut  in  July.  This  is  a  great  advantage  for  this 
country,  since  it  can  be  much  more  easily  cured  and  with  so 
much  less  risk  of  injury  to  quality  than  if  it  were  cut  in  June, 
both  because  it  cures  more  quickly  and  because  there  is  in 
general  a  less  number  of  days  of.  rainfall  in  July  than  in  June. 

It  has  been  customary  to  recommend  that  timothy  should  be 
cut  in  bloom  or  just  past  bloom.  The  following  table  gives 
the  yield  per  acre  of  the  dry  matter  or  water-free  substance 
of  timothy  cut  at  different  dates,  as  determined  by  three  ex- 
periment stations: 

Table  Showing  Influence  of  Maturity  on  Yield  of  Dry  Matter 

The  rate  is  stated  in  pounds  per  acre 


Stage  of  Maturity 

Connecticut 

Illinois 

Pennsylvania 

Well   headed   out    . 

Full   bloom       .... 

Out    of   bloom 

Seed  in   dough 

Seed   nearly   ripe     . 

2,750 
3,300 
3,115 

3,615 

3,285 
3,425 
4,010 
4,065 

2,585 
3,065 

There  was  not  only  an  increase  in  the  total  weight  of  dry 


6o  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


Palatabilit/ of  timothy  hay.    This  rack  shows  way  timothy  hay  was  eaten  by  cattle  when 
harvested  at  different  stages  of  maturity.     Each  of  the  four  compartments  was  filled 
with  equal  quantities  of  hay  cut  at  the  periods  indioated  and  cattle  allowed  to  eat  at  will 
(From  photo  by  Missouri  Station) 

substance  in  each  instance,  but  there  was  in  general  also  an 
increase  in  each  of  the  food  nutrients,  although  the  percentage 
of  nitrogenous  matter  decreased  as  the  plant  became  ripe. 


~7 

■6 

—5 

-4 

— » 


Timothy 
The  percentage  of  large  heads  of  timothy  in  field  not  infested  by  the  timothy  joint-worm 
Scale  of  inches  at  right 
(After  Webster) 

Data  with  reference  to  the  digestibility  of  timothy  at  dif- 
ferent stages  of  maturity  are  meager,  but  the  indications  are 
that  the  digestibility  does  not  decrease  to  any  great  extent  up 


PERENNIAL    FORAGE    GRASSES  6l 

to  the  time  the  seed  is  in  the  dough.  Practical  experience 
shows  that  for  horses,  at  least,  the  palatability  is  not  materially 
decreased.  The  indication  is,  therefore,  that  the  cutting  of 
timothy  may  be  safely  postponed  until  after  it  is  well  past  bloom. 
All  things  considered,  probably  when  the  seeds  are  in  the  dough 
would  be  the  best  time  to  mow  timothy. 

59.  Advantages. — The  great  popularity  of  timothy  as  a  hay 
crop  is  due  to  the  very  satisfactory  reason  that  it  produces  an 
abundance  of  hay  of  good  quality  over  a  large  territory  and 
on  a  considerable  variety  of  soils.  It  is  easily  and  cheaply 
grown,  rarely  lodges,  cures  quickly,  and  there  is  little  waste 
in  handling.  The  fact  that  it  can  usually  be  put  into  the  barn 
or  stack  soon  after  it  is  cut  makes  it  possible  to  handle  it  with 
a  minimum  amount  of  labor,  and  decreases  the  risk  of  having 
the    hay    spoiled    during    inclement    weather.      The    stage    of 

— s 


M(( 


— ? 


Timothy 
The  percentage  of  undersized  heads  of  timothy  in  field  infested  by  the  tim(Jthy  joint- 
worm.    Scale  of  inches  at  right 
(After  Webster) 

maturity  may  vary  considerably  without  materially  influencing 
its  commercial  quality  and  perhaps  not  greatly  its  actual  feeding 
value  per  unit  of  weight.  The  haying  season  may  therefore 
extend  over  a  considerable  period  of  time. 

60.    Comparison  of  Timothy  and  Orchard  Grass  Seed. — Com- 
mercial timothy  seed  is  cheap,  clean,  and  ordinarily  germinates 


62  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

well.  Timothy  produces  from  400  to  500  pounds  of  seed  per 
acre,  orchard  grass  from  200  to  250  pounds  of  seed  per  acre. 
The  number  of  seeds  in  a  pound  of  timothy  is  from  two  to 
three  times  that  of  orchard  grass.  The  germinating  power  of 
the  latter  is  rather  less.  Thus  15  pounds  of  timothy  seed 
costing  5  cents  per  pound,  or  75  cents  per  acre,  would  be 
as  good  a  seeding  as  30  pounds  of  orchard  grass  costing 
20  cents  per  pound  or  $6  per  acre.  If  there  were  a  greater 
demand  for  orchard  grass  seed  it  would  probably  become 
somewhat  cheaper  than  at  present,  since  it  is  not  difficult 
to  raise  or  to  prepare  for  market;  but  owing  to  the  above 
circumstances,  it  probably  always  will  cost  four  or  five  times  as 
much  to  seed  an  acre  of  land  to  orchard  grass  as  to  timothy. 

61.  Disadvantages. — Ordinarily  timothy  produces  but  one  crop 
in  a  season  and  does  not  produce  much  aftermath.  It  often 
grows  very  little  for  several  weeks  after  the  crop  is  harvested. 
In  hot,  dry  seasons  this  lack  of  vegetation,  especially  when 
mown  close  to  the  ground,  causes  the  plant  to  be  injured.  It  is 
desirable  where  such  danger  exists  to  mow  rather  high. 
Timothy  is  slow  to  start  in  the  spring.  It  does  not  produce 
a  dense  sod.  When  not  grazed  closely  it  becomes  coarse  and 
woody  and  is  therefore  not  as  palatable  for  pasture  as  some 
other  grasses.  Its  duration  is  uncertain,  especially  where 
closely  pastured.  It  is  also  more  readily  injured  by  tramping, 
particularly  where  the  ground  is  soft,  than  Kentucky  blue 
grass  or  redtop. 

II.     MEADOW    FOXTAIL 

62.  Description. — Meadow  foxtail  (Alopecurus  pratensis  L.) 
is  closely  related  to  timothy,  for  which  it  may  be  mistaken;  al- 
though it  blooms  fully  a  month  earlier,  its  culms  are  not  so 
tall,  its  heads  are  shorter  and  more  ovoid.  (49)  Meadow 
foxtail  is  distinctly  stoloniferous  and  therefore  makes  a  good 


PERENNIAL   FORAGE   GRASSES 


63 


sod  in  its  proper  habitat.  Culms  are  few,  i  to  3  feet  high,  spar- 
ingly furnished  with  leaves.  The  basal  leaves  are  broad,  long, 
thin,  and  grow  rapidly  when  cut  or  eaten  by  live  stock.     The 


Spikelet  of 
meadow  foxtail. 
Enlarged  four 
times. 

inflorescence  is  a  spike-like 
panicle,  ovoid,  1.5  to  3  or 
more  inches  long.  Spike- 
lets  are  one-flowered.  The 
flowering  glume  usually  has 
a  bent  dorsal  awn;  palea 
is  often  wanting.  Empty 
glumes  are  hairy,  acute  but 
not  awned,  and  are  united 
below  the  middle. 

63.  Seed. — Seed  is  spar- 
ingly produced  and  there- 
fore expensive.  It  is  gen- 
erally of  poor  vitality  and 
hence  a  good  stand  is  sel- 
dom   obtained,    at    least    in 

America.     The  number  of  seeds  per  pound  is   1,216,000.     All 

commercial  seed  is  imported. 

64.    Adaptation  and  Value. — Lawson  says,  "Grows  naturally 
on  rather  superior  soils  of  medium  texture,  and  constitutes  the 


Meadow  foxtail  taken  at  Cornell  Station 

June  1  5.     Spike  on  left  past  bloom. 

One-third  natural  size 


64 


THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


greater  portion  of  many  of  the  richer,  natural  pastures  of 
Britain.  It  requires  two  or  three  years  after  sowing  to  arrive 
at  full  maturity  and,  therefore,  it  is  not  suitable  for  alternate 
husbandry."  ^    Hackel  states  that  it  is  especially  adapted  to  wet 

meadows.  Meadow  foxtail 
is  distinctly  a  pasture  grass, 
being  one  of  the  earliest 
grasses  to  start  in  the  spring. 
On  rich  soils  it  may  be  tried 
in  mixtures  for  permanent 
pastures  at  the  rate  of  i 
pound  of  seed  to  the  acre. 

65.  Collateral  Reading. — Wil- 
liam Jasper  Spillman:  Farm  Grasses 
of  the  United  States,  pp.  75-89. 
New  York:   Orange  Judd  Co.,   1905. 

F.  G.  Stebler  and  C.  Schroter: 
The  Best  Forage  Plants,  pp.  52-60. 
London:   David  Nutt,   1889. 

W.  J.  Beal:  Grasses  of  North 
America,  Vol.  I,  pp.  151-3.  New 
York:    Henry  Holt  &  Co.,    1896. 

Thomas  Shaw:  Grasses  and  Clo- 
vers, Field  Roots,  Forage  and  Fod- 
der Plants,  pp.  10-19.  Minneapolis: 
Northrup,  Braslan,  Goodwin  Co., 
1895. 
In    American    Breeders'    Association, 


Meadow  foxtail  taken  at  Cornell  Station  June 
15.  Plant  well  past  bloom.  Highest  culm 
30  inches;  clump  1 5  inches  wide;  2 1  months 
old  from  single  seed.  One-twelfth  natural 
size. 


In  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 


A.    D.    Hopkins:    Breeding    Timothy. 
Vol.  II.    (1906),  pp.  95-9. 

Thomas  A.  Williams:  Timothy  in  the  Prairie  Regions. 
Yearbook   1896,   pp.    147-154. 

Henry  Prentiss  Armsby  and  J.  August  Fries:  The  Available  Energy  of 
Timothy  Hay.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bu.  An.  Ind.  Bui.  No.  51,   1903. 

Willet  M.  Hays:  Plant  Breeding,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Div.  Veg.  Phys.  and 
Path.  Bui.  No.  29    (1901),  pp.  61-3. 

John  W.  Gilmore  and  Charles  1?.  Clark:  Second  Report  on  the  Influence 
of  Fertilizers  on  the  Yield  of  Timothy  Hay.  New  York  Cornell  Station  Bui. 
No.   241,    1906. 


^  The    Lawson    Seed    and    Nursery    Company:    Agrostographia;    Treatise    on 
Cultivated  Grasses,   Sixth  ed.,  p.  23. 


PERENNIAL  FORAGE  GRASSES  65 

H.  Garman:  On  the  Adulterants  and  Wild  Seeds  Found  in  Kentucky  Sam- 
ples of  Blue  Grass,  Orchard  Grass,  Timothy,  Red  Clover,  Mammoth  Clover, 
and  Alfalfa  Seeds.     Kentucky  Station  Bui.  No.  124,  1906. 

L.  R.  Jones:  Impurities  in  Timothy  Seed.  In  Vermont  Station  Report 
1900,  pp.  290-6. 

J.  B.  Killebrew:  Grasses  and  Forage  Plants.  Tennessee  Station  Bui.  Vol.  XI 
(1898),  Nos.  2,  3,  and  4,  pp.  9-14. 


IV 


PERENNIAL  FORAGE  GRASSES 

I;     REDTOP 

66.  Relationships. — The  genus  Agrostis  contains  about  lOO 
species  distributed  over  the  entire  globe,  but  especially  in  the 
North  Temperate  Zone/  There  is  some  dispute  as  to  the  proper 
classification  of  the  cultivated  species,  perhaps  due  to  the  fact 
that  they  are  only  cultivated  varieties  and  vary  greatly  with 
soil  and  climatic  conditions.  There  are  three  kinds  of  seed  on 
the  American  market — namely,  (i)  redtop,  chiefly  harvested 
in  southern  Illinois,  (2)  creeping  bent,  imported  from  Europe, 
and  (3)  Rhode  Island  bent,  produced  principally  in  Rhode 
Island,  although  seed  of  this  type  is  also  imported. 

As  ordinarily  sold  by  seedsmen,  Rhode  Island  bent  is  A. 
canina  L.,  a  small  type  with  a  strongly  creeping  habit,  fitting 
it  for  lawns  and  permanent  pastures,  but  making  it  unsuited 
for  a  hay  crop.  This  type  may  be  distinguished  from  the  other 
cultivated  forms  by  the  absence  of  the  palea.  The  flowering 
glume  is  awned,  while  in  the  other  cultivated  forms  usually 
it  is  not  awned.  The  other  two  cultivated  forms  belong  to 
A.  alba  L.  and  its  sub-species  A.  alba  vulgaris  (With.)  Thurb. 
These  two  forms  differ  from  each  other  more  in  habit  of 
growth  than  in  botanical  characters,  and  even  in  habit  of  growth 
there  are  so  many  intermediate  forms  as  to  make  the  distinction 
arbitrary.  Agrostis  alba  is  the  taller  and  more  robust  type 
with  red  or  purple  panicles.  Agrostis  alba  vulgaris  differs 
from  Agrostis  alba  by  its  more  slender  culms,  seldom  reaching 

iHackel:   The  True  Grasses,  p.   111. 
00 


PERENNIAL   FORAGE   GRASSES  (i^J 

more  than  i8  inches  in  height,  finer  leaves,  shorter  and  more 
obtuse  ligule,  smaller  panicle  with  fewer  branches. 

In  a  letter,  Mrs.  Agnes  Chase  says:  "Agrostis  alba  vulgaris  can  usually  be 
distinguished  from  A.  alba  by  the  habit  of  the  plant,  but  they  are  so  nearly 
allied  that  the  spikelets  alone  are  not  distinct.  When  making  the  drawings 
for  Professor  Hitchcock's  'Agrostis'  I  examined  a  great  amount  of  material 
of  these  two  kinds  to  find  if  possible  some  clear  distinction  in  the  spikelets 
of  the  two,  but  was  unable  to  find  such  distinction.  The  spikelets  are  the 
same  size,  but  alba  usually  has  a  palet  two-thirds  to  three-fourths  the  length 
of  the  flowering  glume  and  var.  vulgaris  has  a  palet  about  one-half  the  length 
of  the  flowering  glume.  Agrostis  alba,  however,  so  frequently  has  a  shorter 
palet  that  this  character  cannot  be  relied  upon.  But  in  examining  a  quan- 
tity of  seed,  if  I  find  only  shorter  palets,  I  think  it  safe  to  assume  the  seed 
is  that  of  var.  vulgaris." 

Hitchcock  says  of  Agrostis  alba  L.:  "Extensively  cultivated  as  a  meadow 
grass  under  the  name  of  redtop,  and  a  more  stoloniferous  form  as  lawn  grass 
under  the  name  of  creeping  bent.  .  .  .  The  stoloniferous  form  used  for 
lawns  has  been  generally  known  as  var.  stolonifera,  but  it  is  not  A.  stolonifera 
L.  which  is  A.  verticillata  Vill.  .  .  .  The  form  evidently  introduced  through 
a  large  part  of  the  United  States  is  the  large  plant  which  I  have  referred 
to  A.  alba  L.  This  has  taller  stems,  wider  leaf  blades  which  may  droop,  larger, 
more  dense  panicles,  the  branches  often  spikelet-bearing  to  the  base,  ligules 
larger  and  the  stolon-like  rhizomes  often  long  and  stout."  ^ 

"When  seeding  plow-lots  for  a  crop  or  two  of  hay,  we  should  feel  cheated 
if  a  seedsman  were  to  sell  us,  inadvertently,  the  smaller,  to  mix  with  timothy, 
instead  of  the  larger  variety  of  Agrostis.  On  the  other  hand,  when  tired  of 
plowing  a  field,  and  wishing  to  seed  it  so  it  will  run  from  a  meadow  into  a 
permanent  'butter  pasture,'  perhaps,  or  a  green  home-lot,  with  a  fine,  close 
sward  at  bottom,  we  take  much  pains  to  get  seed  of  the  smaller  grass.  Sod 
of  the  larger  one  never  tempted  spade  to  lift  it,  but  turf  of  fine  Agrostis  is 
a  beautiful  possession,"  - 

Mrs.  Chase  writes:  "I  have  examined  packages  of  seed  sold  as  'creeping 
bent.'  These  are  A.  alba,  probably  var.  vulgaris,  but  in  all  packages  I  found 
some  A.  canina  and  one  package  was  nearly  half  composed  of  that  species." 

Redtop  is  botanically  more  closely  related  to  timothy  and 
meadow  fescue  than  to  the  Poas,  the  fescues,  or  orchard  grass, 
in  that  the  spikelet  is  one-flowered  and  the  florets  are  hyaline 
instead  of  chartaceous. 

1  North  American  Species  of  Agrostis.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bu.  PI.  Ind. 
Bui.   No.  68,  p.  26. 

2  James  B.  Olcott:  Fine  versus  Coarse  Agrostis;  in  Rpt.  Conn.  Bd.  /  gr. 
and  Exp.   Sta.,  1887,  p.   177. 


68 


THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


67.  Description. — The  roots  are  more  shallow  than  timothy;, 
the  plant  is  strongly  stoloniferous,  especially  upon  moist  soils, 
making  a  firm  sod  which  stands  tramping  well,  and  also  makes 
the  grass  useful  for  preventing  soils  from  washing.  The  culms 
are  i  to  3  feet  tall  and  are  frequently  decumbent  at  the  base. 

The  nodes  which  come  in 
contact  with  the  ground 
root  freely. 

The  inflorescence  is  an 
erect,  open,  much-branch- 
ed spreading  panicle  with 
many  one-flowered  spike- 
lets,  1.5  to  7  inches  in 
length,  with  an  expanse 
of  the  lower  branches 
half  such  length.  The 
panicle  is  at  first  contract- 


Redtop  taken  in  central   New  York  State  June  28 
Just  coming  into  bloom.    One-third  natural  size 


Spikelet  of 
redtop.  En- 
larged four 
times. 


ed  and  green  in  color,  but  later  expands  and  assumes  the  char- 
acteristic purple  color.  The  flowering  glume  is  hyaline,  usually 
awnless;  palea  short,  often  minute  or  wanting.  Empty  glumes 
longer  than  flowering  glume.  Redtop  has  a  superficial  re- 
semblance to  Kentucky  blue  grass.  The  general  observer  may 
distinguish  it  from  the  latter  by  the  purple  color  of  the  panicle 
and  the  smaller  and  more  numerous  spikelets.  The  fact  that 
the  spikelets  are  one-flowered  in  redtop  and  from  three  to 
five-flowered  in  Kentucky  blue  grass  serves  to  separate  them 
positively. 


PERENNIAL    FORAGE    GRASSES 


69 


Redtop  flowers  four  to  six  weeks  or  even  eight  weeks  later 
than  Kentucky  blue  grass,  and  is  therefore  less  likely  in  the 
field  to  be  confused  with  the  latter  than  with  fowl  meadow 
grass  (Poa  Hava  L.),  which  flowers  at  the  same  time  as  redtop. 
(71)  Redtop  seed  is  sold  in  the  chaff — namely,  with  its 
relatively  large  outer  glumes,  when  a  bushel  weighs  about  12 
pounds;  or  re-cleaned — that  is, 
with  the  outer  glumes  removed, 
when  it  weighs  about  35 
pounds  to  the  bushel.  A  pound 
of  re-cleaned  seed  is  equiva- 
lent to  four  or  more  pounds  in 
the  chaff. 

The  grain  is  0.04  inch  in 
length  enclosed  in  flowering 
glume  about  one'-half  longer, 
giving  a  silvery  appearance  to 
the  seed.  The  number  of  re- 
cleaned  seeds  per  pound  is 
variously      reported :      Illinois  3^^^^  ^^  ^^^^^^^^  ^^^  Aiopecurus  with  im- 

purities.  1.  Redtop  (Agrostis  alba);  2. 
Rhode  Island  bent  ^A.  canina);  3.  slender 
rush  ^Juncus  tenuis);  4.  Canadian  St. 
John's-wort  {Hypericum  cavadense);  5. 
meadow  foxtail  {Aiopecurus pratensis);  6. 
slender  foxtail  {Al.  agresiis);  7.  creeping 
soft  grass  (Holcus  mollis)— the  small  fig- 
ures natural  size. 

(After  Hicks) 


Station,^  4,135,900;  North  Car- 
olina Station,^  6,400,000;  Law- 
son,^  A  alba  var.  stolonifera, 
8,000,000,  A.  vulgaris,  7,800,- 
000.  Redtop  seed  is  not  usually 
adulterated,  the  most  common 
foreign    seed    being    timothy. 

Seeds  of  slender  rush  {J uncus  tenuis  Willd.)  and  sorrel 
{Rumex  acetosella  L.)  occasionally  occur.  The  standard  of 
germination  is  85  per  cent.  Commercial  seed  is  not  infre- 
quently below  this  standard.     The  amount  of  seed  to  sow  per 


1  Illinois  Sta.  Bui.  No.  3  (1888),  p.  33. 

2  North  Carolina  Sta.  Bui.   No.  73   (1890). 

3  Agrostographia,   Sixth  ed.,  p.  40. 


yO  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

acre  is  variously  estimated  from  6  to  30  pounds — perhaps  12 
to  18  pounds  of  re-cleaned  seed  being  most  commonly  recom- 
mended when  sown  alone,  and  6  to  10  pounds  when  sown  with 
timothy  or  timothy  and  red  clover.  Time  and  manner  of 
seeding  are  similar  to  that  of  timothy,  except  greater  care  is 
required  not  to  cover  seed  too  deeply. 

68.  Adaptation. — Redtop  will  probably  thrive  under  a  wider 
range  of  soil  and  climate  than  any  other  cultivated  grass. 
Being  less  esteemed  either  for  hay  or  pasture,  it  is  cultivated 
only  where  other  grasses  are  less  successful.  As  a  hay  crop, 
redtop  is  next  to  timothy  in  importance  among  the  grasses  in 
this  country.  It  often,  perhaps  usually,  forms  a  large  part  o'f 
the  herbage  of  permanent  meadows.  It  is  adapted  to  low, 
moist  lands,  and  is  usually  grown  on  the  poorer  lands  of  this 
sort.  It  is  useful  for  improving  impoverished  clay  soils  on 
account  of  the  organic  matter  furnished  by  its  numerous  roots, 
its  mass  of  underground  and  above  ground  stems,  and  its  thick, 
tough  sod.  It  may,  therefore,  be  wisely  added  to  the  grass 
mixture  in  a  rotation  on  such  soils.  The  Rhode  Island  Station 
has  shown  that  it  is  able  to  live  in  very  acid  soils  where  timothy, 
red  clover  or  Kentucky  blue  grass  will  not  thrive,  which  may 
account  for  its  common  occurrence  in  the  New  England  states. 
Where  lands  are  too  poor,  too  moist,  or  too  acid  to  grow 
timothy,  redtop  may  be  tried.  By  the  skilful  use  of  this  grass 
in  a  rotation,  lands  may  be  improved  and  made  to  grow  more 
desirable  grasses  as  well  as  to  give  greater  yields  of  other  crops. 

69.  Value. — Redtop  produces  a  fairly  good  quantity  of  hay,  it 
being  recognized  as  being  heavy  for  its  bulk.  Its  feeding  value 
as  hay  is  not  considered  equal  to  timothy  and  buyers  are  not 
favorably  disposed  toward  it.  "  In  some  places  where  it  grows 
readily  farmers  take  the  precaution  to  keep  it  out  of  their 
timothy  meadows,  because  even  a  little  of  it  reduces  the  market 
value  of  the  hay.  The  Rhode  Island  Station  found  when  grown 
under  the  same  conditions  that  redtop  was  richer  in  nitrogen 


PERENNIAL    FORi^GE   GRASSES 


71 


\ 


than  timothy,  but  that   a  greater  percentage   of  the   nitrogen 
had  been  changed  to  albuminoids  in  the  case  of  timothy.' 

Redtop  makes  a  sod  more  quickly  than  Kentucky  blue  grass, 
and  on  suitable  soils  produces  an  abundance  of  pasturage.  It 
is  one  of  the  most 
permanent  of  the 
cultivated  grasses. 
It  is,  however,  dis- 
tinctly the  least  pal- 
atable of  the  com- 
monly cultivated  I  J^4^^^f^ 
grasses — at  least  so 
far  as  cattle  are 
concerned. 

II.      KENTUCKY  BLUE 
GRASS 

70.  Name. — Ken- 
tucky blue  grass 
{Poa  pratensis  L.). 
Synonyms:  blue 
grass,  June  grass, 
green  grass,  spear 
grass,  smooth-stalk- 
ed meadow  grass.  In 
some  localities  the 
grass  is  known  only 
as  June  grass  and 
by  many  is  errone- 
ously believed  to  be 
distinct  from  Ken- 
tucky blue  grass.  In 
other  localities  wire 
grass  or  Canada  blue  grass  {Poa  compressa  L.)  is  known  as 
blue  grass,  while  Poa  pratensis  is  called  green  grass. 


Canada  blue  .grass  Kentucky  blue  grass 

Kentucky  blue  grass  on  the  right  in  full  bloom;  Canada  blue 

grass  on  the  left  not  yet  in  bloom.    Taken  at  Cornell 

Station  June  15.    One-third  natural  size 


1  Rhode  Islind  Sta.  BwL  No.  90   (1903),  p.   73. 


'J2  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

71.  Relationships. — The  Poas  are  botanically  more  closely  re- 
lated to  the  fescues,  orchard  grass,  and  brome  grass  than  to  tim- 
othy and  redtop,  in  that  in  the  former  the  spikelets  are  all  two  or 
more  flowered  instead  of  one-flowered  and  the  flowering  glume 
is  chartaceous  instead  of  hyaline.  There  are  about  lOO  species 
of  this  genus  distributed  throughout  all  temperate  and  cold 
countries  and  in  the  high  mountains  of  the  tropics.  The  seeds 
of  a  number  are  commercially  distributed,  of  which  may  be 
mentioned:  Canada  blue  grass  or  wire  grass,  characterized  by 
its  blue  color,  flat,  shorter  culms  (larger  diameter  twice  the 
shorter),  large  spikelets  with  three  to  nine  flowers  and  spreading 
decumbent  habit;  rough  stalked  meadow  grass  (Poa  trivialis'L.), 
characterized  by  its  aerial  runners,  rough  leaf  sheaths,  and  long 
ligules;  wood  meadow  grass  (Poa  ncmoralis  L.)  ;  and  fowl 
meadow  grass  {Poa  iiava  L.). 

Canada  blue  grass  is,  in  most  parts  of  the  United  States, 
considered  a  weed,  and  its  occurrence  in  a  field  is  usually 
esteemed  not  only  as  an  indication  of  decreased  value  in  the 
pasture,  but  also  an  indication  of  a  poor  soil.  Several  au- 
thorities recommend  it  for  dry  soils.  Zavitz,  of  Ontario, 
Canada,  and  Jones,  of  Vermont,  recommend  it  as  superior  in 
feeding  value  for  pasture  to  Kentucky  blue  grass;  while  Spill- 
man  states  that  in  eastern  Ontario  and  western  New  York  it 
is  sometimes  cut  for  hay  and  that  although  the  yield  is  small,  the 
hay  is  highly  prized,  being  preferred  by  horsemen  to  timothy.^ 

On  Dunkirk  stony  clay  in  western  New  York,  where  land 
had  been  in  wheat  for  years  until  it  became  very  poor,  it  was 
observed  by  Fraser  that  after  ten  years  the  land  carried  a  large 
proportion  of  Canada  blue  grass;  that  in  older  grass  land 
Kentucky  blue  grass  predominated,  while  in  still  older  grass 
land  meadow  fescue  began  to  appear.  These  grasses  evidently 
represent  a  gradual  improvement  of  the  land  through  years  of 
pasturing,  as  well   as  the  relative  adaptability  of  the  grasses 

1  Farm  Grasses  of  the  United  States,  p.   102. 


./INTKRHALTKk 
PERENNIAL   FORAGE   GRASSES  73 

in  question.  Cattle  are  said  to  be  fattened  for  export  on  these 
Canada  blue  grass  pastures  at  the  rate  of  one  steer  to  3.5  acres. 
Of  wood  meadow  grass,  Lawson  says:  "There  is  no  grass 
better  adapted  for  pleasure  grounds,  particularly  under  trees, 
as  it  will  not  only  grow  in  such  places,  but  forms  a  fine  sward 
where  few  other  fine  j^Tasses  can  exist."  Fowl  meadow  grass 
blooms  about  the  same  time  as  redtop,  which  together  with  its 
purplish  inflorescence  has  given  it  the  name  of  false  redtop. 
Spikelets  are  two  to  four-flowered,  which  serve  to  distinguish 
from  redtop  whose  spikelets  are  one-flowered.  The  time  of 
blooming  and  the  smaller  and  less  numerous  spikelets  with 
purplish  tinge  serve  to  distinguish  it  from  Kentucky  blue  grass. 
The  Vermont  Station  says:  "It  (fowl  meadow  grass)  is  one  of 
the  most  valuable  of  our  native  grasses,  being  especially  adapted 
to  wet,  overflowed  intervale  land  where  the  usual  hay  grasses 
and  clovers  are  liable  to  be  killed  by  standing  wafer.  Redtop 
and  alsike  clover  are  capable  of  enduring  a  wetter  soil  than 
timothy  and  red  clover,  but  fowl  meadow  will  thrive  best  in 
soil  where  even  redtop  and.  alsike  soon  kill  out.  There  are 
many  acres  in  Vermont  now  occupied  by  sedges  and  rushes 
where  fowl  meadow  grass  would  grow  well  if  introduced. 
Seedsmen  do  not  carry  good  seed  of  this  grass,  but  it  may 
easily  be  harvested  from  the  native  grass  in  almost  any  town 
in  Vermont,  providing  one  knows  the  grass  when  he  sees  it."  ^ 
This  station  further  suggests  that,  if  land  is  liable  to  have  water 
standing  on  it  long  in  the  spring,  the  following  mixture  of  seeds 
be  sown :  timothy  6 ;  redtop  6 ;  alsike  clover  6  pounds ;  and  fowl 
meadow  grass  0.5  to  i  bushel. 

72.  Description. — Kentucky  blue  grass  has  a  strongly  stolon- 
iferous  habit,  making  an  even  although  less  strong  sod  than 
redtop.  The  rhizomes  are  not  easily  eradicated,  making  it  a 
grass  of  good  duration.     Its  roots  do  not  penetrate  deeply- 

1  Vermont   Sta.  Bui.  No.  94,  p.   151. 


74  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

Culms  are  round,  erect,  i  to  2  feet  tall.  Leaf  sheath  is 
smooth;  leaf  blade  narrow,  less  than  one-fourth  inch;  culm 
leaves  2  to  6  inches  long;  basal  leaves  i  to  2  feet  and  in 
protected  places  5.5  feet  have  been  reported.  Blade  is  keeled 
with  boat-shaped  tip,  the  two  halves  closing  when  dry. 

The  inflorescence  is  an  open,  spreading,  pyramidal  panicle  2 
to  8  inches  long,  less  branched,  and  carrying  fewer  spikelets 
than  redtop.  Spikelets  are  three  to  five-flowered. 
The  outer  glumes  are  shorter  than  the  nearest 
flowering  glume.  The  flowering  glume  in  all  the 
Poas  is  keeled,  by  which  they  may  be  distin- 
guished from  the  Festucas  in  which  the  flower- 
ing glume  is  rounded  on  the  back.  The  flowering 
SpikeletofKen-      oriume  is  awnless,  but  the  base  and  margin  and 

tucky    bluo  .  . 

grass.    En-      the  rachiUa  are  covered  with  tangled  or  webby 
larged    four      hairs  which  are  removed  when  seed  are  cleaned 

times. 

for   market.     This   makes    Kentucky   blue   grass 
seed  more  difficult  to  clean  than  Canada  blue  grass  seed. 

73.  Seed. — The  grain  or  caryopsis  is  enclosed  in  its  chartaceous 
flowering  glume  and  palea.  The  seed — namely,  the  flowering 
glume — is  shorter  than  that  of  meadow  fescue  or  perennial  rye 
grass  or  orchard  grass.  It  can  further  be  distinguished  from 
orchard  grass  by  the  twisted  point  and  the  strong  spines  along 
the  keel  of  the  latter.  Kentucky  blue  grass  seed  is  sometimes 
adulterated  with  Canada  blue  grass  seed.  The  former  has  a 
rather  more  pointed  flowering  glume  which  is  five-nerved,  while 
the  latter  has  only  a  keel  and  marginal  nerves.  Kentucky  blue 
grass  seed  (flowering  glume)  may  measure  from  o.io  to  0.15; 
Canada  blue  grass  seed  from  0.08  to  0.09  inch  in  length.  Canada 
blue  grass  seed  has  a  brighter  and  cleaner  appearance  than 
Kentucky  blue  grass  seed.  In  mass  Kentucky  blue  grass  seed 
is  a  deeper  brown  color.  Because  of  variations  these  distinc- 
tions will  not,  however,  always  hold. 


PERENNIAL   FORAGE   GRASSES 


75 


Kentucky  blue  grass  is  comparatively  free  from  weed  seeds, 
although  slender  rush,  shepherd's  purse,  chickweed,  pepper 
grass,  sorrel,  and  some  other  seeds  may  occur.    Kentucky  blue 


grass  flowers  in  May  and 
June,  ripening  its  seed  in 
the  latter  month.  The 
tendency  is  to  strip  the 
seed  while  still  green,  be- 
cause it  is  easier  both  to 
strip  and  to  clean  when 
harvested  green,  and  be- 
cause it  shatters  easily 
when  ripe.  This  tends  to 
rediice  the  germinating 
power,  both  because  seed 
is  unripe  and  because 
when  harvested  unripe  it 
is  more  likely  to  ferment 
during  the  curing  process. 
The  author  tested  17  com- 
mercial samples  in  1891 
whose  germinating  power 
in  soil  in  the  open  air 
ranged  from  y.y  to  35.2 
per  cent.,  while  when 
ripened  seed  was  gathered 
and  carefully  dried  80.1 
per  cent,  germinated.^  The 
standard  of  germination  is 
now  placed  at  50  per  cent., 


%i.Ml 


Seeds  of  Poas  with  impurities.  1 .  Kentucky  blue 
grass  (Poa  pratensis)  rubbed  and  unrubbed;  2. 
wood  meadow  grass  {Poa  nemoyalisr,  3.  ergot; 
4.  Texas  blue  grass  (Poa  arachnifera  \  5. 
Canada  blue  grass  {Poa  compressa);  6.  rough- 
stalked  meadow  grass  (Poa  trimalis);  7.  silky 
bent  grass  (Apera  spica-venti);  8-  wood  hair 
grass  (Deschampsia  flexuosa)',  9.  spine  of  Can- 
ada thistle  (much  enlarged):  10.  Canada  thistle 
(Carduus  arvensis);  11.  stink  grass,  coryopsis 
(Eragrostis  major)— the  small  figures  natural 
size. 

(After  Hicks) 


although  it  is  not  unusual 

for  only  lo  per  cent,  to  germinate.    It  is  necessary  in  such  cases 
to  buy  10  bushels  of  seed  in  order  to  get  i  bushel  of  live  seed. 
illUnois  SU.  Bui.  No.  15  (1891),  p.  481. 


76  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

The  legal  weight  per  bushel  in  most  states  is  14  pounds,  but 
a  well  cleaned  sample  will  weigh  from  24  to  28  pounds.  The 
Illinois  Station  reports  2,185,000  seeds;  Lawson,  3,888,000  seeds 
per  pound. 

74.  Seeding. — It  is  customary  to  recommend  40  pounds  of 
commercial  seed  per  acre  when  sown  alone  for  the  purpose  of 
securing  a  good  stand  of  grass  as  rapidly  as  may  be — as,  for 
example,  in  the  case  of  lawns.  This  is  at  the  rate  of  2,000 
seeds  per  square  foot.  It  is  probable  that  if  80  per  cent,  of 
the  seed  were  viable  half  this  amount  would  be  sufficient.  On 
the  other  hand,  one  of  the  important  reasons  for  failure  in 
practise  to  secure  good  lawns  is  due  to  using  an  insufficient 
amount  of  viable  seeds. 

On  account  of  the  expense  of  the  seed  and  the  slow  develop- 
ment of  Kentucky  blue  grass,  it  is  seldom  sown  alone  for 
pasture.  It  is  usually  sown  with  a  mixture  of  other  grasses 
and  clovers  with  the  expectation  that  as  the  Kentucky  blue 
grass  develops  most  of  these  will  disappear.  What  this  mixture 
should  be  will  depend  on  soil  and  climate,  and  to  some  extent 
whether  it  is  to  be  mown  for  a  year  or  two  or  pastured  from 
the  beginning.  For  the  North  Atlantic  and  North  Central  states 
the  following  mixture  may  be  taken  as  a  basis  to  be  modified 
to  suit  varying  conditions;  timothy  15;  Kentucky  blue  grass 
10;  meadow  fescue  2;  red  clover  8  or  alsike  clover  6,  or 
both  in  half  these  amounts;  and  white  clover  2  pounds.  Such 
a  mixture  will  cost  from  $3  to  $4  per  acre. 

The  grass  seeds  of  this  mixture  may  be  sown  in  September 
and  the  clover  seeds  as  early  as  may  be  in  the  spring,  or  the 
whole  mixture  may  be  sown  in  the  spring  after  the  land  has 
been  well  prepared.  If  a  sod  at  the  earliest  possible  moment 
is  desired,  the  mixture  should  be  sown  without  grain  crop.  If 
immediate  pasture  is  wanted,  rye  may  be  sown  at  the  rate  of 
one  bushel  per  acre  in  September  with  the  grass  seeds.  In  gen- 
eral, the  best  financial  returns  will  be  obtained  by  seeding  the 


PERENNIAL  FORAGE  GRASSES  7/ 

grass  with  wheat  or  rye  in  the  fall  and  subsequently  harvesting 
for  grain.  It  has  been  shown  that  Kentucky  blue  grass  seeds 
germinate  better  if  the  temperature  during  a  portion  of  each 
24  hours  drops  as  low  as  40°  F.  For  this  reason,  probably  fall 
seeding  is  especially  desirable.  The  author  has  had  several  years' 
experience  in  seeding  large  lawn  areas.  The  best  results  he 
ever  obtained  were  in  seeding  heavily  with  Kentucky  blue  grass 
about  November  first  on  the  fortieth  parallel.  For  lawn  pur- 
poses at  least  40  pounds  of  50  per  cent,  viable  seed  of  Kentucky 
blue  grass  should  be  used  alone  or  with  white  clover,  and  with- 
out nurse  crop,  if  the  best  lawn  in  the  shortest  space  of  time 
is  desired.  If  greater  economy  of  seeding  is  required,  a 
mixture  of  20  pounds  of  Kentucky  blue  grass  seed  and  lO 
pounds  of  timothy  may  be  used. 

75.  Adaptation. — Kentucky  blue  grass  is  probably  an  introduced 
species.  It  pretty  certainly  was  introduced  into  the  North  Central 
states  by  the  pioneers,  where  at  the  time  of  its  introduction 
it  was  looked  upon  as  a  dangerous  weed.  As  a  cultivated  grass, 
it  occupies  about  the  same  range  in  the  United  States  as  timothy 
and  red  clover.  Within  this  area  the  relative  importance  and 
adaptability  of  these  species  vary  somewhat.  Speaking  gen- 
erally, Kentucky  blue  grass  reaches  its  best  development  on 
fairly  well-drained  soils  between  the  Allegheny  Mountains  and 
the  Mississippi  River.  It  does  not  make  good  pastures  in  the  non- 
glaciated  region  except  on  limestone  soils,  such  as  Hagerstown 
loam,  which  constitutes  the  blue  grass  region  of  Kentucky,  from 
which  the  grass  takes  its  name.  In  common  with  other  grasses, 
Kentucky  blue  grass  succeeds  better  on  clay  than  on  sandy  soils 
and  in  moist  rather  than  dry  climates.  It  will  not  do  its  best, 
however,  on  heavy,  undrained  clays  where  timothy  thrives. 
For  its  best  development  the  soil  should  be  fertile.  Its  shallow 
roots  cause  it  to  be  easily  affected  by  drought,  and  in  the 
southern  border  of  its  range  shade  is  helpful.  Indeed  it  is 
distinctly  adapted  to  open  woodlands. 


78 


THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


76.  Advantages.— Kentucky  blue  grass  makes  a  compact  sod 
which  stands  a  large  amount  of  tramping  and  very  close  grazing 
without   injury.     On   lawns — for   which   it   is   unexcelled — the 

5     /  frequent  and  close  cutting 

apparently  improves  it.  Its 
leaves  are  fine,  succulent, 
palatable,  and  nutritious. 
It  is  one  of  the  earliest 
grasses  to  start  in  the 
spring  and  one  of  the 
latest  to  grow  in  the  fall. 
In  the  more  temperate 
climates  it  makes  excel- 
lent winter  pasture  by 
keeping  live  stock  of¥  it 
for  a  while  in  the  fall. 
When  thus  dried  standing 
it  is  a  formidable  rival  in 
nutritive  qualities  of  the 
grasses  of  the  sub-humid 
regions.  As  a  pasture,  it 
exceeds  in  palatability 
with  cattle,  at  least,  red- 
top,  orchard  grass,  and  timothy,  and  equals  meadow  fescuf^  •  it  is 
probably  exceeded  by  smooth  brome  grass. 

77.  Disadvantages. — The  quantity  of  hay  produced  is  small 
and,  contrary  to  the  usual  opinion,  the  author  has  found  its  hay 
less  palatable  for  cattle  and  horses  than  timothy  or  clover  hay. 
Under  ordinary  circumstances  it  is  wiser  to  pasture  off  mature 
Kentucky  blue  grass  than  to  make  it  into  hay. 

After  seeding,  it  is  a  long  time  in  taking  possession  of  the 
soil — usually  three  years  before  anything  like  a  good  sod  is 
formed — and  it  may  continue  to  improve  for  lo  or  15  years. 
This  is   in  part  due  to  the  very  poor  germinative  power  of 


Kentucky  blue  grass  taken  at  Cornell  Station 
June  14.  Plant  grown  from  a  single  seed  is 
21  months  old.  Has  gone  out  of  bloom.  High- 
est culms  30  inches;  clump  30  inches  wide. 
Compare  with  Canada  blue  grass. 


PERENNIAL    FORAGE   GRASSES 


79 


Canada  blue  grass  taken  at  Cornell  Station  June  14. 
Plant  grown  from  single  seed  is  21  months  old. 
Has  not  yet  come  into  bloom.  Longest  culms  are 
18   inches  long;   clump  3  feet  wide.    Compare  with 

Kentucky  blue  grass, 


ommercial  seed.     After  plants  are  somewhat  established  they 

pread  quite  rapidly  by  means  of  the  underground  rootstocks. 

It  often  takes  possession  of  the  soil  when  the  land  is  put  in 

pasture.     Probably  few  of  the  blue  grass  pastures  have  been 

artificially  seeded. 

The  greatest  fault  of 
Kentucky  blue  grass  is 
its  failure  to  supply 
good  pasture  during 
July  and  August.  Dur- 
ing hot,  dry  periods  the 
growth  almost  if  not 
entirely  ceases.  Where 
spring  and  fall  are 
short,  the  amount  of 
pasture  may  be  lim- 
ited. 

78.  Harvesting  Seed. — Kentucky  blue  grass  seed  is  mostly 
secured  in  Kentucky  within  a  radius  of  25  miles  from  the  center 
of  a  triangle  formed  by  lines  connecting  the  cities  of  Lexington, 
Paris,  and  Winchester.^  The  seed  is  obtained  by  stripping  the 
heads — there  being  both  hand  and  horse  machines  for  this 
purpose,  the  latter  now  being  largely  used.  The  rough  seed 
thus  obtained  is  dried  in  the  house  or  in  the  field  in  windows  3 
or  4  feet  deep.  During  this  curing  process,  which  takes  eight  to 
ten  days,  the  seed  must  be  kept  constantly  stirred  to  prevent 
over-heating.  Stripping  begins  as  soon  as  panicles  turn  yellow, 
which  in  Kentucky  is  usually  from  June  7  to  June  15.  The 
rough  seed  is  subsequently  purified  or  cleaned  at  factories  with 
several  different  machines  specially  designed  for  this  purpose. 
The  yield  of  seed  will  depend  on  the  thoroughness  with  which 
it  is  purified.  Of  seed  weighing  14  pounds  to  the  bushel  the 
yield  will  run  from  100  to  200  pounds  per  acre;  but  if  seed  is 


U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bu.  PL  Ind.  Bui.  No.  19. 


8o  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

purified  until  it  weighs  24  to  28  pounds  per  bushel,  50  to  100 
pounds  of  seed  would  be  considered  a  good  yield. 

Canada  blue  grass  seed  comes  mainly  from  Ontario,  Canada. 
It  is  harvested  there  about  August  i.  It  is  cut  with  an  ordinary 
mowing-machine  when  the  dew  is  on,  cured  in  cocks  for  about 
one  week,  and  then  threshed.  Five  hundred  pounds  of  seed 
per  acre  is  considered  a  good  yield. 

79.  Collateral  Reading. — F.  G.  Stebler  and  C.  Schroter:  The  Best  Forage 
Plants,  pp.  65-8;   72-83,     London:    David  Nutt.    1889. 

William  Jasper  Spillman:  Farm  Grasses  of  the  United  States,  pp.  90-102; 
146-154.     New  York:  Orange  Judd  Co.,   1905. 

W.  J.  Beal:  Grasses  of  North  America,  Vol.  I,  pp.  143-151.  New  York: 
Henry  Holt  &  Co.,    1896. 

Thomas  Shaw:  Grasses  and  Clovers,  Field  Roots,  Forage  and  Fodder 
Plants,  pp.  12,  13,  and  20.  Minneapolis:  Northrup,  Braslan,  Goodwin  Co., 
1895. 

E.  Brown  and  F.  H.  Hillman:  The  Seeds  of  the  Blue  Grasses.  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agr.,   Bu.  PI.  Ind.  Bui.  No.  84,   1906. 

J.  B.  Killebrew:  Grasses  and  Forage  Plants.  Tennessee  Station  Bui.  Vol. 
XI    (1898),    Nos.   2,    3,   and   4,   pp.    14-17;    53-9. 

L.  R.  Jones:  Vermont  Grasses  and  Clovers,  Vermont  Station  Bui.  No. 
94,   1902, 


PERENNIAL  FORAGE  GRASSES 

I.     ORCHARD   GRASS 

80.  Name.- -Orchard  grass;  cocksfoot  (Dactylis  glomerata 
L.).  Because  of  its  occurrence  in  shady  places,  this  plant  is 
in  America  called  orchard  grass.  In  England  and  in  New 
Zealand  it  is  universally  known  as  cocksfoot,  because  of  a 
fancied  resemblance  of  its  panicle  to  a  cock's  foot.  Although 
very  different  in  its  habit  of  growth,  it  is  botanically  somewhat 
closely  related  to  the  Poas  and  the  Festucas.  The  two  fol- 
lowing grasses  cultivated  only  experimentally  belong  to  the 
same  genus.  Tussock  grass  {D.  caespitosa  Forst.)  is  indigenous 
to  the  Falkland  Islands,  and  is  characterized  by  its  large 
cushions  of  grass.  It  has  been  tried  upon  the  seacoast  of  Great 
Britain  without  success.  Russian  cocksfoot  (D.  altaica  Besser) 
is  distinguished  from  common  orchard  grass  mainly  by  its 
longer  culms. 

81.  Description. — Orchard  grass  is  moderately  deep  rooted, 
the  roots  extending  two  or  more  feet  into  the  soil.  The  Arkansas 
Station  found  in  northwestern  Arkansas,  where  orchard  grass 
thrives  better  than  timothy,  that  while  all  the  timothy  roots 
were  within  12  inches  of  the  surface  50  per  cent,  of  orchard 
grass  roots  were  below  that  depth  and  10  per  cent,  were  below 
20  inches  in  depth.^  The  plant  grows  in  a  compact  raised  tuft 
and  is  not  creeping.  The  culms  are  18  inches  to  3  feet  tall, 
and  are  not  abundantly  supplied  with  leaves.  The  leaf  blades 
are  long,  sometimes  two  feet,  broad,  thick,  and  strongly  keeled, 

1  Arkansas  Sta.  Bui.  No.  29   (1894). 


82 


THE   FORAGE   AND   FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


The  leaf  sheaths  are  normally  entire,  but  on  the  culm  leaves 

the  sheath  becomes  partly  split  by  the  expansion  of  the  culms. 

The  ligule  is  long  and  more  or  less  torn  at  the  apex.     The 

leaves  are  folded  in 
the  bud,  conduplicate, 
the  young  shoots  thus 
appearing  laterally 
compressed. 

Orchard  grass  flow- 
ers in  June  after 
Kentucky  blue  grass, 
about  the  same  time 
as  red  clover,  thus  be- 
fore timothy;  at  the 
Illinois  Station  three 
to  five  weeks  earlier. 
The  inflorescence  is  a 
one-sided  panicle,  the 
nearly  sessile  spike- 
lets  being  arranged  in 
dense  clusters.  Spike- 
lets  are  three  to  four- 
flowered.  The  outer 
glumes  are  slightly 
shorter  than  the  low- 
er flowering  glume. 
When  ripe  the  outer 
glumes  do  not  detach, 
but     the     flowering 

glume  enclosing  the  grain  readily  falls  away. 

82.  Seed. — In  the  commercial  seed  the  grain  is  enclosed  in 
the  florets.  Not  infrequently  the  seeds  remain  in  pairs.  The 
flowering  glume  is  pointed,  the  sharp,  fringed  keel  extending 
into  a  short  awn  with  a  slight  twist  that  helps  to  identify  the 


Orchard  grass  taken  at  Cornell  Station  June  15 
Panicle  in  bloom.     One- half  natural  size 


PERENNIAL  FORAGE  GRASSES  83 

seed.    The  seed  (flowering  glume  including  awn)  is  about  one- 
third  of  an  inch  and  without  awn  one-sixth  to  one-fourth  of 
an   inch   long,   and  the   grain   is   one-tenth   inch 
long.     The  embryo  is  very  minute. 

Seeds  of  meadow  fescue  and  the  rye  grasses 
not  infrequently  occur  in  orchard  grass  seed. 
These  seeds  in  American  grown  orchard  grass 
seed  may  be  considered  adulterations,  since 
meadow  fescue  and  the  rye  grasses  are  not  usu- 
ally found  growing  in  the  seed-producing  sec- 
tion of  this  country.     Meadow  fescue,  however,        chard  grass. 

is  a  common  impurity  in  European  fields,  and  vel-        Enlarged  four 

^         -^  ^  times, 

vet  grass  in  New  Zealand  fields,  from  which  large 

quantities  of  orchard  grass  seed  are  imported  to  America.  The 
weeds,  which  are  troublesome  in  orchard  grass  fields  in  the  seed- 
producing  section,  are  whitetop  (Erigeron  annims  (L.)  Pers.), 
red  sorrel  (Rumex  acetosella  L.),  oxeye  daisy  {Chrysanthemum 
leiicanthemiim  L.),  milfoil  {Achillea  millefolium  L.),  and  the 
plantains  {Plantago  lanceolata  L.  and  P.  aristata  Michx.).^ 
Seed  growers  pay  special  attention  to  prevent  these  weeds  from 
seeding,  a  common  and  effective  method  being  to  pasture  with 
sheep  in  the  spring  until  the  early  part  of  May  or  in  some 
instances  until  seed  is  ready  to  harvest,  and  again  after  seed 
is  harvested.  This  practise  not  only  reduces  the  weeds,  but 
appears  to  improve  the  yield  of  seed  as  well  as  furnishing  an 
additional  source  of  profit. 

As  just  indicated,  it  is  possible  to  furnish  orchard  grass  seed 
with  100  per  cent,  purity,  and  less  than  98  per  cent,  should  not 
be  accepted.  The  number  of  seeds  per  pound  may  vary  from 
400,000  to  480,000.  The  legal  weight  per  bushel  is  usually  14 
pounds,  but  the  best  well-cleaned  seed  may  weigh  22  pounds 
to  the  bushel.    The  standard  of  germination  should  be  not  less 

lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bu.  PI.  Ind.  Bui.  No.  100,  pt.  VI,  p.  13. 


84 


THE  FORAGE  AND  FIBER  CROPS  IN  .^MERICA 


than  90  per  cent.,   although  samples   containing  75   to  80  per 
cent,  of  living  seeds  are   generally  accepted  as  good. 

While  it  is  easily  harvested  and  produces   from   150  to  250 

pounds  per  acre  under  Amer- 
ican conditions,  the  cost  of 
seeding  is  rather  high,  both 
because  of  the  price  of  the 
seed  per  pound  and  because 
of  the  quantity  required. 
When  sown  alone,  35  pounds 
of  seed  per  acre  are  general- 
ly recommended  when  in- 
tended for  hay  and  15  pounds 
when  intended  for  seed.  At 
the  Illinois  Station  ^  sowing 
less  than  35  pounds  reduced 
the  yield  of  hay.  In  pasture 
mixtures  5  to  10  pounds  may 
be  sown. 

83.  Distribution. — It  is  na- 
tive throughout  Europe,  in 
temperate  Asia,  and  in  North 
Africa.  It  is  naturalized  in 
North  America,  where  it  is 
said  to  have  been  first  culti- 
vated. It  is  sparingly  cul- 
tivated over  a  wide  area  of 
the  United  States.  Spillman 
has  shown  that  it  is  relatively 
most  extensively  cultivated  in 
Virginia,  North  Carolina, 
Tennessee,  and  Kentucky — 
namely,  along  the  southern  border  of  the  timothy  region.^    This 


Seed  of  orchard  grass  and  its  impurities. 
1.  Orchard  grass  {Dactylis  glomerata), 
two  seeds  cohering,  outer  face,  and  single 
seed,  inner  face;  2.  blue  pearl  grass  {Mo- 
linia  coerulea)\  3.  tall  buttercup  {Ranun- 
culus acHs);  4.  English  rye  grass  iLoh'um 
perenne);  5.  Italian  rye  grass  (L.  I'talicum); 

6.  crested  dog's-tail  {Cynosurus  cristatus^', 

7.  velvet  grass  (Holcus  lanatus);  8.  beard- 
ed darnel  (Lolium  temulentum);  9.  mead- 
ow fescue  (Festuca  pratensis);  10.  soft 
chess  (Brvmus  hordeaceus)— the  small  fig- 
ures natural  size. 

(After  Hicks) 


1  Illinois  Sta  Bui.   No.   15    (1891),   p.  483. 

2  Farm  Grasses  of  the  United  States. 


PERENNIAL  FORAGE  GRASSES  85 

may  be  clue  to  its  better  adaptation  to  the  soil  and  climate  of 
that  region  or  it  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  timothy  thrives 
less  well  there.  The  Arkansas  Station  recommends  orchard 
grass  as  the  best  grass  for  that  state  for  permanent  meadows 
and  pastures.  Orchard  grass  thrives  especially  well  along  the 
Pacific  coast  west  of  the  Cascade  Mountains. 

84.  Adaptation. — Orchard  grass,  while  perfectly  hardy  to 
winter  cold,  is  recognized  to  be  easily  injured  by  late  spring 
frosts.  This  may  account  for  its  more  extended  cultivation  in 
the  region  mentioned.  Orchard  grass  is  also  recognized  as 
enduring  shade  well;  in  fact,  in  shady  places  it  will  persist  for 
years  and  yield  abundantly.  This  has  been  accounted  for  by 
its  thick  broad  leaves.  It  may  also  be  that  the  shade  prevents 
injury  by  late  frosts.  Orchard  grass  is  not  like  redtop  to  be 
recommended  for  poor  or  wet  soils,  but  requires  a  fairly  fertile 
well  drained  soil.  While  a  generous  supply  of  moisture  is  more 
necessary  for  its  best  development  than  with  timothy,  it  stands 
periodic  droughts  much  better.  The  duration  of  orchard  grass 
is  perhaps  superior  to  timothy.  Where  closely  pastured  it  is 
said  to  last  three  to  five  years,  when  it  will  be  generally 
superseded  by  the  finer  grasses. 

85.  Value. — Orchard  grass  is  a  much  praised  but  little  cul- 
tivated grass  in  Airerica.  It  has  been  cultivated  in  this  country 
at  least  since  1764,  when  it  was  brought  into  notice  in  England 
by  its  re-introduction  from  America.  While  it  has  been  culti- 
vated more  or  less  since  that  time,  orchard  grass  hay  is  not 
known  commercially,  and  it  is  known  to  comparatively  few 
farmers.  The  fact,  however,  that  it  has  zealous  advocates  may 
indicate  that  there  are  special  conditions  of  soil  and  climate 
over  limited  areas  in  which  it  produces  favorable  results. 

Orchard  grass  produces  an  abundance  of  leaves  early  in  the 
season,  being  one  of  the  earliest  grasses  to  start  in  the  spring. 
It  throws  up  seed  culms  nearly  as  high  as  those  of  timothy, 


86 


THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


but  they  are  produced  rather  sparingly,  especially  the  first  few 
years  after  being  sown.     The  result  is  a  comparatively  light 

yield.  At  the  Illinois 
Station,  on  rich  black 
prairie  soil  orchard 
grass,  35  pounds  of 
seeds  per  acre,  gave 
during  two  years  an 
average  yield  of  1.4 
tons  of  field  cured  hay ; 
timothy,  15  pounds  of 
seed  per  acre,  2..2  tons; 
orchard  grass,  17.5 
pounds  and  red  clover, 
6  pounds,  2.2  tons ;  tim- 
othy, 9  pounds  and  red 
clover,  6  pounds,  2..(i 
tons  of  field  cured  hay 
per  acre.^ 

The  average  of  Amer- 
ican   analyses    shows 
orchard   grass    to    con- 
tain  a   larger    percent- 
^_  _^^__  ^S^     °^     protein     and 

^   ,     ^  ,       ^  ^       „  r,    .      T       , .     r,,    X  crude    fiber    than    tim- 

Orchard  grass  taken  at  Cornell  Station  June  14.    Plant 
grown  from  a  single  seed  is  21  months  old.    Was  in  Othy  or  any  Other  COm- 
full  bloom  when  picture  was  taken.     Highest  culms  ^^^^j      cultivated   graSS. 
44  mches;  clump  33  mches  wide.  •'  ° 

The  hay  has  the  repu- 
tation of  being  less  readily  eaten  by  live  stock,  although 
it  is  claimed  that  this  may  be  remedied  by  cutting  the  grass 
earlier.  At  the  Cornell  Station,  as  pasture  it  was  not  as  readily 
eaten  by  cattle  as  smooth  brome  grass,  Kentucky  blue  grass. 


Illinois  Sta.  Biil.  No.   15    (1891),  p.  486. 


PERENNIAL  FORAGE  GRASSES  87 

or  meadow   fescue ;   it  was  about  as  readily  eaten  as  timothy 
and  much  more  readily  eaten  than  redtop. 

86.  Mixtures. — Because  of  the  habit  of  orchard  grass  to 
grow  in  tussocks  it  is  generally  considered  best  not  to  sow 
orchard  grass  alone.  European  authorities  recommend  that 
not  to  exceed  15  per  cent,  of  the  herbage  shall  be  orchard 
grass  and  that  it  be  not  all  added  at  once.  Because  it  ripens 
at  the  same  time  as  red  clover,  they  make  suitable  plants  to 
sow  together.  At  the  Illinois  Station,  however,  it  was  found 
that  red  clover  developed  much  more  fully  when  sown  with 
9  pounds  of  timothy  than  when  sown  with  17.5  pounds  of 
orchard  grass.  The  abundance  of  basal  leaves  seemed  to  have 
a  repressive  influence  both  on  red  clover  and  on  alsike  clover. 
It  has  also  been  recommended  for  seeding  with  alfalfa.  It  is 
said  to  help  the  curing  of  the  first  cutting  with  which  it  matures, 
and  if  pastured  to  prevent  bloating.  Those  who  have  tried 
seeding  with  alfalfa  in  the  North  Atlantic  states  have  not 
usually  continued  the  practise.  According  to  Spillman,  how- 
ever, this  method  is  highly  satisfactory  in  the  Rocky  Mountain 
states.  Orchard  grass  does  not,  like  smooth  brome  grass,  have 
a  tendency  to  spread  and  choke  out  the  alfalfa. 

87.  Cultural  Methods. — The  time  and  manner  of  seeding  are 
similar  to  that  of  timothy.  If  sown  with  timothy  and  occupying 
not  more  than  20  per  cent,  of  the  mixture  by  weight,  it  may 
be  sown  in  the  grass  seeder,  but  if  sown  alone  it  is  best  to  sow 
by  hand.  It  is  especially  desirable  to  harrow  orchard  grass 
meadows  in  the  spring  and  subsequently  roll.  A  top  dressing 
of  manure  in  the  early  spring  materially  increases  the  yield 
and  improves  the  quality  of  the  seed. 

88.  Time  of  Harvesting. — Orchard  grass  readily  becomes 
unpalatable  and  needs  perhaps  more  than  any  other  grass  to 
be  harvested  without  delay  when  the  proper  time  arrives.     In 


88  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

Switzerland,  where  orchard  grass  forms  a  considerable  part  of 
the  hay,  there  is  a  saying  that  the  time  to  make  hay  is  when  the 
cocksfoot  is  in  flower.  At  the  Illinois  Station  there  was  an 
increase  of  22  per  cent,  in  the  weight  of  water-free  substance 
from  full  bloom  until  seed  were  in  the  milk,  which  was  a  period 
of  eight  days.  During  this  period  the  percentage  of  ash  and 
nitrogen-free  extract  increased;  the  other  nutrients  decreased.' 
In  favorable  seasons  two  crops  of  hay  may  be  harvested,  one 
in  June  and  the  other  in  August. 

89.  Harvesting  Seed. — American  grown  seed  is  chiefly  pro- 
duced in  Indiana  and  Kentucky,  near  Louisville.  Orchard  grass 
is  ready  to  cut  for  seed  when  the  heads  become  straw-colored 
and  a  slight  pressure  causes  the  seed  to  shatter.  In  Kentucky 
this  is  usually  about  June  20.  Care  must  be  exercised  to  cut 
promptly;  otherwise  seed  will  shatter  badly.  For  harvesting, 
the  self-binder  is  used,  making  rather  smaller  bundles  than  for 
wheat.  Three  or  four  bundles  are  set  up  together  and  the 
tops  tied  together  with  two  bands  about  6  inches  apart.  The 
bands  are  made  from  straws  drawn  from  the  bundles.  In  15 
to  20  days  after  it  is  cut,  it  may  be  threshed  with  a  grain 
thresher  provided  with  screens  made  specially  for  orchard 
grass  seed. 

II.     MEADOW    FESCUE 

90.  Relationships. — The  name  English  blue  grass  sometimes 
given  to  this  grass  (Festuca  elatior  L.  var.  pratensis  Gray)  is 
unfortunate  because  the  name  is  applied  to  wire  grass  or 
Canada  blue  grass  (Poa  compressa  L.).  Closely  related  to 
meadow  fescue  is  tall  meadow  fescue  or  tall  fescue  (F.  elatior 
L.).  Lawson  states  that  this  species  may  be  easily  distinguished 
from  the  former  by  being  much  larger  (nearly  double)  in  all 
its  parts,  which  observations  at  the  Cornell  Station  seem  to 
confirm.     Other   American   observers   report   it   from   2   to   6 

1  Illinois  Sta.  Bui.  No.  5   (1889),  p.  147. 


PERENNIAL    FORi\GE    GRASSES  89 

inches  taller,  but  otherwise  practically  identical.  The  seed  of 
the  tall  meadow  fescue  is  two  to  three  times  as  expensive  as 
the  smaller  type. 


Taller  fescue  taken  at  Cornell  Station  June  22.  Plant  passing  out  of  bloom.  Highest 
culms  51  inches;  clump  36  inches  wide;  21  months  old  from  single  seed.  Note  the 
spreading  character  of  basal  leaves  compared  with  smooth  brome  grass. 

There  are  more  kinds  of  seed  of  the  genus  Fcstiica  carried 
by  seedsmen  than  of  any  other  genus  of  grasses.  Among  these 
may  be  mentioned  three  closely  related  species  or  varieties — 
namely,  sheep's  fescue  {F.  ovina  L.),  hard  fescue   (F.  durius^ 


90 


THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


cida  L.),  and  slender  fescue  (F.  octoHora  Walt.).  All  have 
rather  fine  leaves  with  a  dwarf  habit  of  growth  and  are  adapted 
to  high  inferior  sandy  and  gravelly  dry  soils.  Slender  fescue 
has  the  shortest  culms,  but  is  characterized  by  its  long  slender 
leaves,  which  are  of  a  light,  livid  green  color.  In  Great  Britain, 
although  the  yield  is  small,  sheep's  fescue  is  highly  prized  as 
a  pasture  as  well  as  for  its  indication  of  a  dry  soil  adapted  to 
sheep.  This  and  other  species  of  Festuca  form  a  part  of  the 
sheep  ranges  of  western  United  States. 

91.    Adaptation   of   Related   Species. — Speaking   of   English 

conditions,  Lawson  says:  "The 
hard  fescues  may  be  classed 
among  the  best  native  grasses 
for  general  purposes.  It  will 
thrive  on  a  great  variety  of  soils 
and  produce  a  greater  weight 
of  fodder  than  might  be  expect- 
ed from  its  comparative  dwarf 
habit  of  growth,  and  is  found 
to  resist  the  effect  of  severe 
drought  in  summer  and  to  retain 
its  verdure  during  winter  in  a 
remarkable  degree.  It  consti- 
tutes a  great  portion  of  the  best 
natural  pastures  in  the  country, 
especially  where  the  soil  is  light 
and  dry."  Another  drought-resisting  species  is  red  or  creeping 
fescue  (F.  rubra  L.).  This  species  on  account  of  its  creeping 
habit  forms  a  close,  lasting  sod  which  is  said  to  make  it  valuable 
on  embankments  where  soil  is  dry,  or  for  binding  light  sandy 
seacoasts. 

Two  other  species  are  especially  adapted  to  wet,  moist,  cold 
soils  rich  in  humus — namely,  various  leaved  fescue  (F.  hetero- 
phylla  L.)  and  floating  fescue  (F.  Uuitans  L.).    The  latter  is 


Sheep's  fescue  variety  fine  leaved  taken 
at  Cornell  Station  June  14.  Plant 
grown  from  a  single  seed  is  2 1  months 
old.  Has  not  yet  come  into  bloom. 
Note  the  fine  basal  leaves.  Highest 
culms  14  inches;  clump  16  inches 
wide. 


PERENNIAL    FORAGE   GRASSES  9 1 

recommended  for  shady  places,  and  is  said  to  be  valuable  as 
a  constituent  of  permanent  meadows  either  for  mowing  or 
grazing.  The  seed  of  all  the  six  species  just  mentioned  is  high- 
priced  and  none  is  recommended  for  general  culture,  although 
special  circumstances  or  conditions  may  arise  where  they  will 
be  valuable. 

92.  Distribution. — There  are  about  80  species  of  Festuca 
widely  scattered  throughout  the  world,  but  espe- 
cially in  the  temperate  regions.  While  a  number 
of  species  are  native  of  North  America,  meadow 
fescue  is  introduced.  It  is  one  of  the  chief  culti- 
vated grasses  of  Great  Britain  and  the  continent 
of  Europe,  but  it  has  been  sparingly  cultivated  in 
North  America.  According  to  Spillman,  its  culti- 
vation has  reached  some  importance  in  eastern 
Kansas  and  western  Missouri,  where  a  considerable 
amount  of  seed  is  produced;  while  in  Washington, 
Idaho,  and  Oregon  it  is  regarded  favorably.  It 
does  not  seem  to  have  been  seriously  tried  in  the 
North  Atlantic  states;  but  judging  from  the  way 
it  is  spreading  in  places  where  it  has  escaped  from 
cultivation  or  where  it  has  been  sown  in  per- 
manent pastures,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  on 

.  ^  .  .  Spikelet   of   tall 

rich  soils  in  the  cooler  climates  of  northern  United  meadow  fes- 
States  and  in  Canada  it  could  profitably   form  a     ''"^-  ^""^^'^^^ 

^  •'  two  times. 

part  of  the  mixture  for  permanent  pastures. 

93.  Adaptation. — Meadow  fescue  is  about  equally  adapted  to 
pasture  or  meadow,  although  in  the  timothy  region  it  is  inferior 
to  the  latter  in  yield  of  hay.  It  does  not  have  the  marked  tufted 
habit  of  orchard  grass,  nor  the  strongly  stoloniferous  or  creeping 
habit  of  Kentucky  blue  grass,  but  stands  with  timothy  some- 
what between  these  two  extremes.  Nevertheless  it  makes  a 
compact  leafy  sod,  and  as  a  pasture  was  found  at  Cornell  to  be 
distinctly  more  palatable  to  cattle  than  timothy  if,  indeed,  it  did 


92 


THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


not  outrank  Kentucky  blue  grass.  It  starts  in  the  spring  about 
the  same  time  as  the  latter.  The  hay  is  generally  considered 
to  be  both  palatable  and  nutritious.  Like  Kentucky  blue  grass, 
it  takes  three  years  to  form  a  good  sod,  and  is  therefore  not 
adapted  to  temporary  meadows  or  temporary  pastures.  The 
seed  being  rather  high  priced  and  rather  low  in  germination, 
it  is  generally  advisable  to  use  it  only  in  mixtures  for  per- 
manent pastures.    It  is  not  recommended  as  a  lawn  grass.    The 

extreme  vigor  with  which 
individual  plants  of  taller 
fescue  developed  in  the  trial 
grounds  at  Cornell  Univer- 
sity raises  the  question 
whether  much  of  the  in- 
ability to  get  a  good  stand 
of  this  grass  is  not  due  to 
poor  seed. 

94.  Seed. — The  flowering 
glume  or  outer  covering  of 
the  seed  of  meadow  fescue 
is  one-fifth  to  one-fourth 
inch  long,  is  without  dis- 
tinct keel,  and  is  awnless. 
It  closely  resembles  the 
flowering  glume  of  peren- 
nial rye  grass,  the  latter  on 
account  of  the  lower  price 
often  being  used  as  an  adul- 
terant of  meadow  fescue. 
The  seed  of  meadow  fescue 
is  to  be  distinguished  from  perennial  rye  grass  chiefly  by  its 
rachilla.  The  rachilla  of  the  former  is  more  slender,  round 
instead  of  oval,  the  end  having  a  slight  knob.  The  rachilla  also 
stands  away  slightly  from  the  palea,  while  in  perennial  rye 
grass  it  lies  close  to  the  palea.    ' 


Seeds  of  fescue  and  brome  grasses.  1 .  Slieep'a 
fescue  iFestuca  om'na);  2.  red  rescue  (F. 
rubra);  3.  tufted  hair  grass  (Deschampsia 
caespitosa^;  4.  upright  brome  iBromus 
erectus);  5.  Schrader's  brome  (Br.  uni- 
oloides);  6.  chess  {Br.  secalinus);  7.  hairy 
brome  (Br.  asper);  8.  awnless  brome  (i?r. 
inermis)—the  small  figures  natural  size. 
(After  Hicks) 


PERENNIAL  FORAGE  GRASSES  93 

The  standard  of  purity  should  be  95  per  cent.,  and  of  germina- 
tion 75  per  cent.,  although  commercial  seed  is  frequently  much 
lower  in  germinating  power. 

Meadow  fescue  is  harvested  for  seed  with  a  self-binder  as 
soon  as  or  just  before  seed  begins  to  shatter  and  is  threshed 
with  an  ordinary  grain  thresher.  It  is  then  re-cleaned  with  a 
sand  sieve  or  fanning  mill.  While  in  some  cases  700  to  900 
pounds  of  seed  per  acre  are  obtained,  150  to  250  pounds  per 
acre  are  considered  satisfactory. 

There  are  about  300,000  seeds  to  the  pound.  Fifty  pounds  of 
seed  per  acre  are  considered  necessary,  when  sown  alone.  It 
is  only  recommended,  however,  for  seeding  in  mixtures  for 
pastures,  at  the  rate  of  two  to  five  pounds  per  acre. 

III.     SMOOTH    BROME   GRASS 

95.  Relationships. — Smooth  brome  grass;  Hungarian  brome 
grass  (Bromus  inermis  Leyss.).  This  species  is  called  smooth 
or  awnless  brome  grass  because  it  is  distinguished  from  other 
forms  of  the  genus  Bromus  by  the  absence  of  the  awn  on  the 
flowering  glume.  This  grass  is  closely  related  to  cheat  or  chess 
{Bromus  secalinus  L.),  from  which  it  differs  in  being  strongly 
perennial,  while  chess  is  a  fall  annual.  (C.  A.  139)  Chess 
is  rarely  grown  for  hay.  Fair  yields  may  be  obtained,  but  the 
quality  is  rather  inferior.  Schrader's  brome  grass  {B.  unioloides 
(Willd.)  H.  B.  K.)  was  formerly  extensively  advertised  under 
the  name  of  rescue  grass  as  a  winter  grass  for  the  cotton  states, 
and  is  now  occasionally  sown  for  winter  pasture.  Except  in 
the  extreme  south,  it  does  not,  according  to  Spillman,  possess 
for  this  purpose  any  advantages  over  the  cereals.  There  is  a 
large  number  of  species  of  the  genus  Bromus  growing  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  United  States,  some  of  which  perhaps 
deserve  further  study  with  a  view  to  their  introduction  as 
cultivated  plants. 


94  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

96.  Description. — Smooth  brome  grass  is  strongly  stolon- 
iferous  and  deep-rooted.  At  the  North  Dakota  Station  roots 
of  one-year-old  plants  had  reached  four  feet,  two-year-old,  five 
and  one-half  feet,  forming  a  dense  sod  six  to  eight  inches  thick. 
The  culms  are  erect,  growing  under  cultivation  four  feet  or  more 
in  height.  They  are  abundantly  provided  with  prominent  leaves. 
The  leaf  sheath  is  entire;  the  leaf  blade  varies  from  one-fourth 
to  one-half  inch  wide,  8  to  12  inches  in  length,  and  is  rolled  in 
the  bud.  The  ligule  is  short  and  rather  inconspicuous.  The 
flowers  are  borne  in  a  widely  spreading  panicle  four  to  eight 
inches  long.  The  spikelets  are  large,  three-fourths  to  one  inch 
long,  with  six  to  ten,  usually  seven  to  nine  flowers  to  a  spikelet. 
The  seeds  (flowering  glumes)  are  three-eighths  to  one-half 
inch  long,  flat  and  without  awns.  The  rachilla  is  one-fifth  to 
one-fourth  the  length  of  the  flowering  glume  and  is  covered 
with  bristles  which  serve  to  distinguish  the  seed  from  perennial 
rye  grass  seed,  or  meadow  fescue  seed.  The  caryopsis  or 
naked  seed  is  brown,  slightly  folded,  and  about  two-thirds  the 
length  of  the  flowering  glume. 

97.  Adaptation. — Smooth  brome  grass  being  a  comparatively 
recent  introduction,  its  economic  range  has  not  yet  been  fully 
established  for  the  United  States.  Having  grown  for  centuries 
upon  the  Steppes  of  Russia,  it  is  adapted  to  a  cold  climate  and 
a  dry  soil.  Although  it  has  not  been  uniformly  successful  over 
the  whole  area,  in  general  it  appears  worthy  of  trial  over  that 
vast  area  between  the  Missouri  River  and  the  Cascade  Mountains 
of  the  Pacific  coast  which  has  not  heretofore  possessed  a  sat- 
isfactory pasture  grass.  Its  abundant  and  deep  root  system 
not  only  enables  it  to  withstand  long  periods  of  drought,  but 
also  by  binding  the  particles  of  soil  together  prevents  the  trans- 
portation of  the  soil  by  wind.  It  appears  particularly  adapted 
to  the  sub-humid  High  Plains  region  between  98  and  104 
degrees  West  Longitude,  north  of  Oklahoma.  It  is  enthusi- 
astically  recommended   by   the   Kansas,   Nebraska,   and   North 


PERENNIAL  FORAGE  GRASSES 


95 


Dakota  stations.  It  is  not 
adapted  to  the  warm  climate  of 
the  South  Atlantic  and  South 
Central  states,  and  as  yet  there 
are  no  reports  of  marked  suc- 
cess with  it  in  the  North  At- 
lantic states. 

98.  Seeding. — For  an  acre, 
20  pounds  of  seed  are  required. 
The  seed  is  easily  harvested  and 
is  produced  in  fair  abundance; 
yields  of  500  pounds  of  seeds 
have  been  reported.  It  may  be 
cut  with  a  self-binding  harvest- 
er and,  after  curing  in  shock, 
threshed  with  the  ordinary  grain 
thresher.       It    is    recommended 

by  the  Nebraska  Station  that  the  seed  be  sown  about  as  deeply 
as  oats;  shallow  seeding,  it  is  said,  is  a  frequent  cause  of 
failure  to  secure  a  good  crop.  If  there  is  plenty  of  moisture 
in  the  soil,  it  is  preferably  sown  in  the  fall ;  otherwise  spring 


Meadow  fescue  on  the'  left;  smooth  brom© 
grass  on  the  right.  Taken  at  Cornell 
Station  June  1  6.  Both  in  bloom.  One- 
third  natural  size. 


96  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

seeding  gives  the  best  results.  It  is  sometimes  sown  with 
winter  wheat.  In  regions  where  it  is  inadvisable  to  plow  on 
account  of  drifting  sands  it  has  been  found  prac- 
ticable, by  opening  the  ground  at  intervals  with  a 
spade  and  depositing  seed,  to  secure  such  a  stand 
of  this  grass  as  to  greatly  improve  the  existing 
range  conditions.  It  is  recommended  to  sow  with 
alfalfa  especially  for  pasture,  the  amount  of  pas- 
ture being  increased  thereby  and  the  smooth  brome 
grass  preventing  the  alfalfa  from  bloating  the 
cattle.     (86) 

99.    Time  of  Harvesting. — Smooth  brome  grass 

blooms  distinctly  later  than   Kentucky  blue  grass 

and  somewhat  earlier  than  timothy.     It  is  said  to 

get  hard  and  woody  rather  rapidly,  hence  cutting 

as  soon  as  it  is  in  bloom  is  advised.    At  the  North 

Dakota   Station   smooth  brome   grass   was   cut   at 

three  stages  of  growth— namely,    (i)    in  blossom, 

(2)   in  milk  stage,   (3)   when  fully  mature.     The 

Spike  let  of   weight  of  watcr-frec  substance  per  acre   was  as 

smooth  brome   follows:  (i)  2,290,  (2)  2,462,  and  (3)  2,8o2  pounds. 

fagged  two   Comparatively  little  difference  in  composition  was 

times.  found  at  the  different  stages  of  maturity.^ 

100.  Value. — Smooth  brome  grass  makes  a  good  yield  of  hay 
when  first  seeded,  but  in  a  year  or  two  the  yield  of  hay  falls 
off,  apparently  on  account  of  the  dense  sod  formed.  It  is 
thereafter  best  fitted  for  pasture,  of  which  it  furnishes  a  great 
abundance.  It  starts  early  in  the  spring,  grows  late  in  the  fall, 
and  withstands  drought  best  of  any  cultivated  forage  grass. 
The  hay  is  readily  eaten  by  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  and  the 
pasture  is  extremely  palatable.     At  the  Cornell   Station  cattle 

1  North  Dakota  Sta.  Bui.  No.  47.     1901. 


PERENNIAL  FORAGE  GRASSES 


97 


appeared  to  prefer  it  as  pasture  to  Kentucky  blue  grass,  meadow 
fescue,  or  any  other  cultivated  grass. 

Smooth  brome  grass  is  highly  prized  as  an  improver  of  soils 
too  long  cultivated  in 
cereal  crops,  since  the 
great  mass  of  roots  and 
underground  stems  and 
the  dense  mat  of  vegeta- 
tion on  the  surface  make 
a  marked  addition  to  the 
organic  matter  of  the 
soil,  adding  to  the  water- 
holding  capacity  of  the 
soils  in  the  sub-humid 
sections.  Being  strongly 
stoloniferous,  it  is  a 
plant  of  good  duration. 


IV.     BERMUDA    GRASS 

101.  Description. — Ber- 
muda grass  (Capriola 
dactylon  (L.)  Kuntze) 
is  strongly  stoloniferous, 
spreading  by  both  above 
ground  and  underground 
stems,  making  a  dense, 
thick  sward  which  stands 
tramping  well.  The  flow- 
ering culms  vary  from  a 
few  inches  to  two  feet  in 
height  under  favorable 
conditions.  They  are 
sparingly  supplied  with 
leaves  and  bear  three  to 
to  two  inches  long,  bear 


Smooth  brome  grass  taVen  at  Cornell  Station  June 
22.  Plant  passing  out  of  bloom.  Highest  culms  48 
inches;  clump  24  inches  wide;  21  months  old 
from  single  seed.  Note  the  upright  character  of 
the  leaves  as  compared  with  tall  fescue  or  or- 
chard grass.    Note   also   the    large  spikelets. 

five  one-sided  spikes.    The  spikes,  one 
one-flowered  spikelets,  which  mature 


98 


THE   FORAGE   AND   FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


seed   sparingly   in   the   United   States,   except   in    the   extreme 
southern  portion. 

102.  Seed. — The  seed  is  imported  and  apparently  unreliable. 
There  are  1,800,000  seeds  to  the  pound.  On  the  Potomac  Flats 
at  Washington,  D.  C,  a  dense  sod  was  obtained  in  ten  weeks 
by  seeding  on  June  6  with  20  pounds  of  seed  per  acre.^  It  is 
believed  eight  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  are  sufficient  to  secure  a 
fair  stand.  Spillman  states,  however,  that  for  Bermuda  grass 
seed  "to  germinate,  the  conditions  must  be  exactly  ideal."  It  is 
usually  propagated  by  cutting  up  the  sods,  sowing  the  pieces 
broadcast,  and  plowing  in  or  planting  in  rows  or  hills  like 
potatoes.     In  fact,  any  method  of  distributing  and  covering  the 

pieces  of  stems  will  suffice. 
Seeding  may  be  done  at  any 
time  except  when  there  is 
danger  of  freezing.  Spring 
is  to  be  preferred. 

103.  Adaptation. — Ber- 
muda grass  is  a  tropical  plant, 
and  has  no  agricultural  value 
north  of  the  thirty-seventh 
parallel.  South  of  the  thirty- 
fifth  parallel  it  is  a  valuable 
grass  both  for  hay,  pasture, 
and  lawns,  as  well  as  for  the 
prevention  of  the  erosion  of 
the  soil.  It  stands  the  hot- 
test weather  and  severe 
drought,  making  its  best  growth  in  the  summer  months.  It 
does  not  thrive  in  the  shade.  It  starts  late  in  the  spring, 
and  in  the  fall  the  tops  are  easily  killed  by  frost.  In  order  to 
secure  pasture  throughout  the  year  in  the  Gulf  states,  attempts 


Velvet  grass  taken  at  Cornell  Station  June 
14.  Plant  grown  from  a  single  seed  is  21 
months  old.  In  full  bloom.  Highest  culms 
22  inches;  clump  20  inches  wide. 


1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Div.  Agros.  Circ.  No.  28,  p.  4 


PERENNIAL  FORAGE  GRASSES 


99 


have  been  made  to  sow  bur  clover  {Medicago  maculata  Willd.) 
or  hairy  vetch  on  Bermuda  sod  in  September  (using  disk  har- 
row to  open  the  soil)  with  rather  indifferent  success.  A 
variety  known  as  St.  Lucie  is  said  to  be  more  frost-resistant, 
and  hence,  on  account  of  keeping  green  longer,  is  preferred 
as  a  lawn  grass.  It  is  also  said  to  be  more  easily  exterminated. 
Bermuda  grass  thrives  upon  a  great  variety  of  soils,  but  is 
probably  best  adapted  to  sandy  soils. 

104.  Value. — Bermuda  grass  is  liked  by  domestic  animals 
either  as  pasture  or  as  hay.  Analyses  also  indicate  that  it  is 
highly  nutritious.  While  on  fertile  soils  it  may  be  cut  two  or 
three  times  in  a  season  and  may  under  favorable  conditions 
yield  two  to  four  tons  of  hay  per  acre,  its  habit  of  growth  best 
fits  it  for  grazing.  For  this  purpose,  it  is  the  standard  grass  in 
the  cotton  states.  Bermuda  grass  and  Japan  clover  are  pre- 
eminently the  pasture  plants  of  the  South.  Bermuda  grass 
is,  however,  less  extensively  cultivated  than  would  seem  to  be 
indicated  by  its  excellent  qualities.  This  may  be  due  to  the 
high  price  of  the  seed,  or  to  the  fact  that  the  plant  takes  such 
a  strong  hold  upon  the  soil  as  to  make  it  unsuited  to  short 
rotations.  Where  it  seeds  freely,  it  is  said  to  become  a  serious 
pest.  Where  it  does  not  produce  seed  it  can  be  controlled  by 
plowing  and  growing  a  thickly  sown  and  strong  growing  crop, 
such  as  sorghum,  millet,  oats,  cowpeas,  or  velvet  beans. 

V.     MINOR   GRASSES 

105.  Johnson  Grass  (Sorghum  halepense  (L.)  Pers.)  is  a  strongly  stolon- 
iferous,  coarse-growing  plant,  with  culms  four  to  seven  feet  high,  bearing  long, 
broad,  fiat  leaves  and  having  an  open  panicle  6  to  18  inches  long.  The 
spikelets  are  in  pairs  at  the  nodes  or  in  threes  at  the  end  of  the  branches, 
on**-  -*«sile  and  perfect,  the  others  pedicelled  and  empty.     The  sessile  spikelets 

-_  Jne-seeded.  rrom  25  to  40  pounds  of  seed  may  be  sown  to  the  acre. 
WivUe  it  is  hardy  as  far  north  at  least  as  the  fortieth  parallel,  as  a  weed  it 
ib  us.uallly  met  only  in  the  cotton  states,  and  especially  on  the  black  prairie 


100 


THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


limestone  soils  in  that  section.     It  will  thrive  under  a  wide   range  of  climatic 
conditions  both   as   to   temperature   and    moisture. 

Johnson  grass  is  closely  related  to  the  millets  and  sorghum,  it  being  con- 
sidered the  parent  form  of  the  latter  by  Hackel.  It  is  not  of  the  highest 
feeding  value,  being  similar  to  the  millets  in  this  regard.  (119)  In 
some  sections  where  other  grasses  do  not  thrive,  it  has  been  found  profitable 
to  give  up  the  farm  to  producing  Johnson  grass  hay.  Two  or  three  cuttings 
may  be  obtained  in  one  season.  Like  other  strongly  stoloniferous  grasses, 
it  becomes  sod-bound  in  two  or  three  years,  thus  reducing  the  yield.     Spillman 

recommends  plowing  the  meadows  in  the 
fall  every  two  years.  By  this  method 
meadows  are  said  to  continue  productive  as 
long  as  fertility  lasts.  Johnson  grass  does 
not  stand  grazing  well,  pasturing  some- 
times being  recommended  as  a  means  of 
eradication. 

Johnson  grass  can  scarcely  be  considered 
a  cultivated  grass,  since  it  is  usually  self- 
sown.  It  is  difficult  to  eradicate  com- 
pletely, both  because  of  its  strongly  stolon- 
iferous habit  and  because  it  seeds  freely.^ 
It  is  therefore  ordinarily  looked  upon  as 
a  major  weed  and  a  minor  cultivated  plant. 
Doubtless,  however,  it  may  come  to  occupy 
an  important  place  in  the  farm  economy 
in  certain  sections  of  the  South  Central 
states. 

106.     Tall   Oat    Grass    (Arrhenatherum 
elatius    (L.)    Beauv.)    is    closely    related    to 
the  common  cultivated  oat,  and  also  to  the 
lai^  "^-     i|    /  '   \  common   wild   oat-grass    (Danthonia   spicata 

_^^^pgiJI#  (L.)     Beauv.)    which    forms    a    not    incon- 

/^  1^  siderable    portion    of    the    herbage    of    per- 

manent pastures  and  meadows  on  the  poorer 
soils  of  the  North  Atlantic  states.  The  tall 
oat  grass  is  a  fibrous-rooted,  erect,  tall 
grass,  growing  on  suitable  soil  three  to 
five  feet  high,  with  a  long  open  panicle 
bearing  two-flowered  spikelets.  It  yields  an  abundance  of  coarse  forage,  and 
will  grow  on  rather  sandy  soils  where  other  grasses  do  not  thrive  so  well; 
but  in  the  United  States  its  lack  of  palatability  has  prevented  its  extensive 
cultivation.  (8)  It  is  known .  in  France  as  ray  grass  where,  as  in  other 
parts    of    Europe,    it    is    highly    prized.      The    seed    is    principally     imported. 


^^U 


.^^ 


Tall  oat  grass  taken  at  Cornell  Station 

June  15      Panicle  in  bloom. 

One-third  natural  size 


*  For  methods  of  extermination,   see   U.   S.   Dept.   Agr.,   Bu.   PI.   Ind.   Bui. 
No.    72,   pt.    3. 


PERENNIAL  FORAGE  GRASSES 


lOI 


but  can  be  easily  harvested.  It  may  be  bound,  cured  in  shocks,  and  threshed 
as  in  case  of  common  oats.  There  are  159,000  seeds  to  the  pound.  About 
50  pounds  of  seed  with  a  germinating  power  of  70  per  cent,  are  required 
to  sow  an  acre. 

107.     Velvet  Grass  (Holcus  lanatus  L.)  is  an  early  flowering  grass,  growing 
18    to    30    inches    high.      It    is    characterized    by    the    downy    character    of    the 


Velvet  grass  taken  at  Cornell  Station  June  15. 
Spray  on  the  left  in  full  bloom;  in  the  middle  in 
bloom  at  top;  on  right  not  in  bloom.  One- third 
natural'size . 


Sweet  vernal  grass  taken 
at  Cornell  Station  June  1 6. 
Lower  spikelets  in  bloom. 
Slightly  reduced 


leaves,  from  which  it  takes  its  name  and  which  makes  it  of  little  value,  since 
this  character  makes  it  unpalatable  to  live  stock.  It  grows  rather  readily, 
and  is  said  to  be  especially  adapted  to  soil  high  in  organic  matter  and 
moisture.  It  is  distinguished  from  other  commonly  cultivated  grasses  by  the 
soft  woolly  appearance  of  its  rather  large  panicles.  In  Scotland  this  plant 
commonly  occurs  in  perennial  rye  grass,  and  commercial  seed  is  obtained  in 
cleaning  the  latter  seed.  The  commercial  seed  usually  consists  of  the  two- 
flowered  spikelets.  The  germination  is  low — 50  per  cent,  or  less.  About  20 
pounds  of   seed  are   required   per  acre. 

108.     Sweet  Vernal  Grass  (AntJioxanthum  odoratum  L.)  is  a  fibrous-rooted 
grass,    growing    12    to    18    inches    high.      It    is    characterized    by    its    agreeable 


102 


THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


odor  and  bitter  taste.  It  is  adapted  to  dry  pastures,  and  it  is  said  that  in 
England  in  those  pastures  where  this  grass  is  abundant,  the  finest  mutton  is 
produced.  There  seems  to  be  plenty  of  evidence  that  cattle  and  even  sheep 
are  not  fond  of  it.  It  has  been  widely  tested  by  the  experiment  stations 
and  is  probably  of  little,  if  any,  value.  The  seed  is  principally  gathered  in 
central  Germany  from  wild  plants  growing  in  the  woods.  There  are  924,000 
seeds  to  the  pound.  The  germinating  power  is  low — 30  per  cent,  or  less — and 
30  pounds  of  such   seed  would  be   required  to   seed  an  acre. 

109.  Perennial  Rye  Grass  (Lolium  perenne  L.)  and  Italian  rye  grass 
(L.  italicum  A.  Br.)  are  not  properly  included  under  perennial  forage  grasses, 
since  neither  is 
strictly  peren- 
nial. Both 
species  are  in- 
travaginal  and 
tufted,  and 
have  rather 
limited     power 

of  vegetative  reproduction.  The  duration  varies  with 
conditions;  but,  as  a  rule,  Italian  rye  grass  lasts  only 
two  years  and  sometimes  only  one  year,  while  perennial 
rye  grass  lasts  two  or  more  years.  The  most  marked 
botanical  distinction  between  the  two  species  is  that  the 
flowering  glume  in  Italian  rye  grass  bears  an  awn,  while 
perennial  rye  grass  is  awnless.  "Compared  with  any 
varieties  of  common  rye  grass,  the  L.  italicum  affords  a 
stronger  braird,  arrives  sooner  at  maturity,  has  a  greater 
abundance  of  foliage — which  is  broader  and  of  a  lighter 
or  more  lively  green  color — grows  considerably  taller,  is 
more  upright  or  less  inclined  to  spread  on  the  ground; 
its  spikes  are  longer;  spikelets  more  thinly  set,  and,  upon 
the  whole,  producing  a  less  bulk  of  seed,  which  is  smaller; 
has  the  awn  adhering  to  it,  and  is  generally  about  two- 
thirds  the  weight  per  bushel  of  that  of  common  peren- 
nial rye  grass,  when  grown  under  similar  circumstances."  ^ 
Italian  rye  grass  grows  somewhat  taller  (one  and  a  half 
to  three  feet)  than  perennial  rye  grass  (one  to  two  feet)  Perennial  rye  grass 
and  is  characterized  by  its  very  rapid  growth.  It  is  ex-  taken  at  Cornell  Sta- 
tensively  used  for  meadows  in  England,  and  is  especially 
adapted  to  rich,  moist  soils  and  to  sewage  irrigation. 
Perennial  rye  grass  is  grown  both  for  hay  and  for  grazing, 
but  is  perhaps  best  adapted  to  pastures  of  short  duration, 

Both_  species    produce    seed    abundantly,    and    the    seed    is    therefore    cheap. 
Germination   in   commercial   seed   is  about   75   per   cent.      The  size   of   seeds   is 

^  The   Lawson   Seed   and   Nursery   Company:   Agrostographia,   p.   29. 


tion  June  1  6.  Spike 
in  bloom.  One-third 
natural  size. 


PERENNIAL  FORAGE  GRASSES  IO3 

quite  variable,  but  Stebler  gives  the  average  number  of  seeds  per  pound  for 
Italian  rye  grass  285,000,  and  for  perennial  rye  grass  336,000.  About  50 
pounds  of  seed  are  sown  per  acre  when  sown  alone,  but  usually  perennial 
rye  grass  is  sown  in  mixtures,  not  to  exceed  10  per  cent,  of  the  whole  being 
recommended.  The  above  statement  is  for  European,  and  especially  English, 
conditions.  Where  tested  in  America,  the  yield  of  forage  has  been  too  small 
to   make   either   species  valuable.^ 

Practicums 

110.  Equipment  for  the  Study  of  Grasses  and  Other  Forage  Crops. — 
The  equipment  for  teaching  grasses  and  forage  crops  should  consist  of  the 
following  materials: 

1.  A  grass  nursery  consisting  of  at  least  50  individual  plants  of  each  of  the 
species  it  is  desired  to  study.  These  should  be  started  in  small  pots  in  the 
greenhouse  and  planted  in  rows  5  feet  apart,  with  the  plants  40  inches  apart 
in  the  rows.  There  should  be  not  less  than  two  rows  nor  more  than  three 
to  each  plat  or  species  and  every  third  or  fourth  plat  should  be  planted  to 
some  standard  plant,  like  timothy  for  the  grasses  and  red  clover  for  the 
legumes,  for  purposes  of  comparison.  This  nursery  serves  as  a  place  where 
students  may  study  the  gross  characters  of  the  different  species  and  their 
habits  of  growth.  No  other  kind  of  instruction  can  fully  take  the  place  of 
this  field  study.  The  information  to  be  obtained  will  be  valuable  to  the 
instructor  as  well  as  to  the  student.  The  nursery  also  serves  to  furnish  fresh 
specimens  annually  for  indoor  study, — a  very  essential  feature  of  successful 
laboratory  instruction. 

2.  Every  student  should  be  furnished  with  a  bundle  of  each  species  to  be 
studied.  Each  bundle  should  be  the  complete  product  of  a  single  plant  from 
the  grass  nursery  gathered  when  seeds  are  well  formed  but  before  the  plant 
has  become  fully  ripe.  By  this  means  the  student  will  be  enabled  to  judge 
of   the    relative    possible    production    of    single   plants   of    the    different    species. 

3.  Each  student  should  be  furnished  with  a  pressed  and  mounted  specimen 
of  each  species  gathered  at  the  time  of  full  bloom.  These  should  be  placed 
upon  jute  tag  board,  120  pounds  to  the  ream,  22x28  inches.  The  specimens 
may  be  sewed   on   the   paper  or  fastened  with  adhesive  cloth. 

4.  The  laboratory  should  contain  a  full  collection  of  seeds  of  the  plants 
to  be  studied,  as  well  as  seeds  of  related  economic  plants  and  weed  seeds 
commonly  occurring  in  commercial  seeds.  (See  practicum  on  seed  testing.) 
(115) 

5.  Laboratory  desks  with  water  and  gas  may  be  arranged  with  five-foot 
frontage  for  each  student  and  30  inches  deep  by  30  inches  high.  Two  thirty- 
inch  drawers  and  cupboards  on  either  side  of  the  knee  space  may  serve  for 
holding   mounted   specimens,   the   smaller   bundles,    and    apparatus.      The   larger 

1  For  detailed  account  of  the  rye  grasses,  see  Stebler  and  Schroter:  The 
Best  Forage  Plants,  pp.  20-30. 


104 


THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


bundles  may  be  placed  in  the  locker  with  which  every  student  should  be 
provided.  This  desk  will,  by  having  classes  in  sections,  accommodate 
two  students. 

6.  A  large  amount  of  the  essential  study  of  grasses  and  forage  crops  may 
be  accomplished  without  any  microscopic  equipment.  The  important  require- 
ment   for   lenses   for   this   work   is  a  rather   large   field.      If   each    student    is 

provided  with  a  one-inch 
focus  lens,  the  other  re- 
quirements may  be  met 
by  a  few  lenses  or  micro- 
scopes placed  upon  side 
tables  where  students 
may  use  them  as  needed. 
The  following  are  sug- 
gested as  useful:  (1) 
reading  glass  and  stand 
consisting  of  lens  4 
inches  in  diameter  with  a 
focus  of  9  inches;  (2) 
dissecting  microscope  with 
one  and  a  half  and  three- 
fourth-inch  lenses  (such 
as  Bausch  &  Lomb's  No. 
2);  (3)  a  compound 
microscope  with  one  and 
two-inch  eyepieces  and  two-inch,  two-thirds-inch  and  one-sixth-inch  objectives 
(such  as  Bausch  &  Lomb's  Stand  BB).  Each  student  may  be  furnished  with 
the  dissecting  microscope  just  mentioned,  but  when  this  cannot  be  afforded, 
a  simple  dissecting  microscope  (such  as  Bausch  &  Lomb's  S3)  will  be 
found  useful. 

7.  Students  should  have  access  to  bulletins  of  the  experiment  stations,  and 
there  should  be  at  least  one  set  of  the  Experiment  Station  Record  for  each 
20  students.  For  list  of  books,  see  outline  for  discussion  of  grasses  and 
leguminous  forage  crops.      (Ill) 

111.  Outline  for  Discussion  of  Grasses  and  Leguminous  Forage  Crops. — 
The  author  has  for  a  number  of  years  required  students  to  make  an  individual 
study  of  specimens  of  forage  crops  and  of  a  selected  list  of  station  publica- 
tions, together  with  some  of  the  more  useful  books  used  as  reference  merely. 
Below  is  submitted  an  outline  which  experience  lias  shown  to  work  sat- 
isfactorily. Students  have  been  able  to  complete  the  outline  on  grasses  in 
six  weekly  practicums  of  two  and  a  half  hours  each  by  writing  up  the  notes 
outside  the  practicum  hours;  if  done  separately,  legumes  will  require  about 
an  equal  amount  of  time,  but  if  the  work  follows  the  grasses,  it  may  be  com- 
pleted in  somewhat  less  time.      For  leguminous  forage  crops  see   253. 

There  are  two   sources  of  information:    (1)    the  plants,  and    (2)    references 


A  desirable  reading  glass  for  examining  seeds 


PERENNIAL  FORAGE  GRASSES  IO5 

to  certain  publications.  References  are  of  two  kinds:  (1)  books  containing 
a  general  discussion,  and  (2)  Experiment  Station  Record  containing  references 
to  experimental  results.  References  to  the  Experiment  Station  Record  are 
given  under  each  head  by  volume  and  page.  If  a  more  extended  account  is 
desired,  consult  the  reference  therein  mentioned. 

Books — 
Beal:   Grasses  of  North   America. 
Coburn:   Alfalfa. 
Coburn:   The  Book  of  Alfalfa. 
Flint:   Grasses  and  Forage  Plants. 
Hackel:   The  True   Grasses. 

Howard:   Grasses  and   Forage  Plants  at  the  South. 
Shaw:   Forage  Crops  Other  than  Grasses. 
Shaw:   Soiling  Crops. 
Shaw:   Grasses  and  Clovers. 
Shaw:   Clovers  and  How  to  Grow  Them. 
Spillman:    Farm  Grasses  of  the  United  States. 
Stebler  and  Schroter:   The  Best  Forage   Plants. 
Vasey:   Agricultural  Grasses  of  North  America. 
Wallace:   Clover  Culture. 

Ward:   Grasses;   A   Handbook  for  Use  ni  the  Field  and   Laboratory. 
United    States    Department    of    Agriculture:     Bulletins    of    the    Division    of 
Agrostology. 

Description — 
Describe  the  roots,  culms,  leaves,  inflorescence,  and  seed  of  timothy,  red- 
top,  orchard  grass,  meadow  fescue,  Kentucky  blue  grass,  an<l  smooth  brome 
grass.  Place  special  emphasis  upon  those  characteristics  which  give  them 
agricultural  value.  II,  329 1;  IV,  249;  VI,  403,  691;  XI,  120,  420,  423,  927; 
XII,  517;   XIII,  224,   443;   XVII,   23. 

Adaptation — 
Discuss   the    actual    distribution    of    various    species    of    grasses    and    the    in- 
fluence   of    climate,    soil    and    demands    upon    such    distribution.      II,    69,    329; 
VI,   403;    IX,    242;    XI,   43,   339,    1033;    XII,    332;    XIII,    443,    526.      See   also 
Twelfth  Census,   1900,  Vol.  VI. 

Seed- 
State  quantity  of  seed,  number  of  live  seeds  required  per  acre,  standard 
of  germination,  common  impurities,  and  manner  and  time  of  sowing  of  six 
species  above  named.  I,  23,  25,  286;  II,  69,  329,  511,  601,  632;  III,  217, 
785;  IV,  720;  V,  333,  334,  628;  VI,  641;  IX,  829,  956;  X,  836;  XI,  120,  155, 
156,  339,  462;  XII,  535,  565;  XIII,  564;  XIV,  139,  241;  XVI,  785;  XVII, 
241,  546,  547,  653,  763,  964. 

1  Roman    figure    refers    to    volume    of    Experiment    Station    Record,    Arabic 
figure  to  the  page   of  the  volume. 


I06  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

Cultural  Methods — 

General:  I,  183,  254;  II,  237,  594,  600;  III,  28;  IV,  248,  646;  V,  38,  171, 
577,  679,  680;  VI,   290,  415,   531;   VIII,  307;   IX,   335,   553,   829;    X,   431;   XI, 

145,  339;  XII,  138,  629;  XIII,  442,  1039;  XIV,  139,  240,  241;  XV,  132, 
237,    665;    XVI,    141,    144,    149,   249,    447,   864,   968. 

Mixing  with  other  crops:  I,  183,  254;  II,  511,  594,  601,  602,  633;   III,  836; 

IV,  38,  249;  V.  171;  VI,  138,  290;  IX,  829;  X,  431;  XI,  743;  XII,  347, 
535,  740;  XIII,  751;  XIV,  574;  XV,  138,  237,  1068;  XVI,  249,  472;  XVII,  128. 

Fertilizers:  I,  183;  II,  580,  602,  633;  III,  376;  IV,  28,  129,  133;  V,  291; 
VI,  405,  720;  VIII,  778;  IX,  829;  X,  626;  XI,  136,  141,  145,  530,  539,  641, 
642,  722,  835;  XII,  228,  634,  739,  935;  XIII,  333;  XIV,  32,  134;  XV,  32, 
139,   140,  665;  XVI,  350,  502,  963,  968;   XVII,  235,  412,  461,   1141. 

Rotation:   XIII,   34;   XVI,    150. 

Harvesting:   I,   34;   II,   328,  486,   740. 

Value — 
As    indicated    by    yield    or    growth:    II,    69,    511,    633,    740;    III,    128,    455; 

V,  38;  VI,  532;  IX,  829;  X,  626,  838;  XI,  339;  XII,  547,  629,  634;  XIV, 
33;   XV,   145,   350;   XVI,   131,   354,  864;    XVII,   272,   352,   380,   895. 

As  indicated  by  feeding  trials  or  otherwise:  I,  183,  270;  III,  160,  454; 
IV,  29,  480;  V,  76,  172,  330;  VI,  405,  532;  IX,  242,  828;  XI,  28,  420,  632, 
1033;  XII,   547;   XIV,   240. 

112.  Outline  for  Study  of  Vegetative  Portion  of  Grasses  in  the  Field. 
— For  this  practicum,  single  specimens  should  be  grown  in  the  grass  nursery. 
The  specimens  may  be  examined  as  they  occur  in  the  nursery  or  may  be 
placed  in  pots  and  taken  to  the  laboratory.  The  following  eight  grasses  are 
recommended:  timothy,  meadow  foxtail,  redtop,  Kentucky  blue  grass,  Canadian 
blue  grass,   orchard   grass,   meadow   fescue,   and   smooth  brome   grass. 

Latin    name Common    name 

Where    found Date     

Student's    name    

Leaf  sheath:  Round;  elliptical;  lenticular:  smooth;  downy;  rough:  split  to 
node;    partly  split;   entire;   length inches  to inches. 

Ligule:  Long;  medium;  short:  acute  pointed;  obtuse  pointed;  truncate; 
rectangular:   serrated  edges;   not  serrated. 

Leaf  blade:    Erect;    ascending;    drooping:    smooth;    downy;    rough:    rolled   or 

convolute    in   bud;    folded    or    conduplicate    in    bud:    color ;    length 

inches   to inches. 

Midrib:   Prominent;   medium;   small. 

End  of  blade:  Acuminate;  tapering;  obtuse;  parallel  sided.  (Compare  red- 
top  with  Kentucky  blue  grass.) 

Color  of  roots:   White;  brown;  red. 

Lower  internode:   Normal;  thickened. 

Habit  of  growth:  Intra-vaginal;  extra-vaginal:  no  stolons;  short  stolons; 
long  stolons. 

Diameter   of   single  plant :    inch   to inch. 


PERENNIAL  FORAGE  GRASSES  IO7 

113.  Outline  for  Study  of  Mature  Grasses. — Either  fresh  or  dried 
specimens  may  be  used  for  this  practicum.  If  the  latter,  both  single  mounted 
specimens  and  bundles  of  grasses  are  desirable.  The  following  eight  grasses 
are  recommended:  timothy,  meadow  foxtail,  redtop,  Kentucky  blue  grass, 
Canadian  blue  grass,  orchard  grass,  meadow  fescue,   and   smooth  brome   grass. 

Latin    name Common    name 

Where    found Date     

Student's    name    

Culm:    Height  in  inches 

Culm:  Erect  and  ascending  at  base;  erect  but  decumbent  at  base;  de- 
cumbent. 

Culm:    Strong;   medium;   slender. 

Culm:    Round;   elliptical;   lenticular. 

Culm:    Strongly  furrowed;   medium  furrowed;   not  furrowed. 

Culm :   Color 

Culm:   Foliage  abundant;   scanty. 

Cross  section  of  upper  part  of  culm:  Solid;  nearly  solid;  hollow:  walls, 
thick;  medium;  thin. 

Leaf  sheath:    Smooth;    downy;   scabrous. 

Leaf  sheath:    Split  to  node;   partly  split;  closed. 

Leaf  sheath:  Relation  of  length  of  leaf  sheath  to  length  of  leaf  blade 
;  constant  or  variable. 

Leaf  sheath:   Color. 

Ligule:   Large;   medium;   small. 

Leaf  blade :  Length    (average    of    five) ;    width    (average    of 

five) 

Leaf  blade:   Midrib,   prominent;   medium;    indistinct. 

Leaf  blade:   Veins,   prominent;   medium;   indistinct. 

Leaf  blade:   Open;   folded. 

Inflorescence:    Number  of  flowers  per  spikelet :   outer  glumes, 

longer  than   flowering   glume;    shorter:    flowering   glume,    hyaline;    chartaceous. 

Panicle:  Open  and  spreading;  compressed  or  tufted;  spike-like:  length  of 
panicle : 

114.  Seed  Identification. — Supply  each  student  with  one  gram  of  a  com- 
mercial sample  of  seed  of  timothy,  redtop,  orchard  grass,  Kentucky  blue  grass, 
meadow  fescue,  perennial  rye  grass,  and  smooth  brome  grass.  Student  should 
be  supplied  with  a  magnifier  about  five  diameters,  needle,  cross  section  paper, 
and  a  few   sheets  of  white  paper.      Determine  the   following: 

1.  Pure  seed:  No Weight 

2.  Weed  seeds:   No No.  of  kinds Weight 

3.  Foreign  but  useful  seeds:  No No.  of  kinds 

Weight 

4.  Inert  matter :   Weight 

5.  Flowering  glume:  Length:  Determine  when  placed  end  to  end  number 
required  to  cover  five  inches.     Caryopsis:  length 


io8 


THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


6.  Flowering  glume:   Blunt;  pointed:   straight;  curved:  awned;  awnless. 

7.  Flowering  glume:   Yellow;  brown;   reddish;   silvery:   chartaceous;  hyaline. 

8.  Flowering    glume:    Keel:    prominent;    medium;    absent:     smooth;    hairy. 
Adherence:  strong;  medium;  weak, 

9.  Rachilla:   Long;  short;  variable:  slender;  broad:  smooth;  hairy:  standing 
away  from  the  paleae;   compressed  against   paleae;  absent, 

10.  Most  important   character   for  identification 


:     '1'! 

"?    1  i 

i       ! 

1       1 
1     ii*- 

!     "■ 

• 

1         !      1  lii 

J1    ;'--*.      ^,    • 


115.  Seed  Test. — Give  each  student  samples  of  commercial  seed  repre- 
senting considerable  differences  in  the  percentage  of  germination.  The 
following  grasses  are  suggested:  redtop,  Kentucky  blue  grass  and  timothy, 
each    one   ounce;    red   clover,    alfalfa    and    meadow    fescue,    two    ounces;    hairy 

vetch  and  cowpeas,  each  four  ounces. 
For  details,  see  Rules  and  Apparatus  for 
Seed  Testing,  adopted  by  the  standinf 
committee  on  methods  of  seed  testing  ol 
the  Association  of  American  Agricultural 
Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations.  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agr.,  Off.  Expt.  Sta.  Circ.  34 
(Revised).  The  following  special  ap- 
paratus in  addition  to  lenses,  microscopes, 
and  dissecting  instruments  is  recom- 
mended: 

1.  A  seed  mixer  and  sampler, 

2.  A  nest   of  small  copper  sieves. 

3.  A  vertical    air-blast    seed   separator. 

4.  An  authentic  collection  of  the  seeds 
of  the  principal  weeds  and  cultivated 
plants  such  as  is  prepared  for  schools  by 
the  Seed  Laboratory  of  the  U,  S,  Dept. 
of  Agr. 

5.  Standard  or  Semoer's  germinating  chambers  equipped  with  low  tem- 
perature thermostats  and  thermometers, 

6.  Blue  blotting  paper  and  canton  flannel. 

7.  Sterilized   sifted  sand  and   shallow   greenhouse   flats. 


-7" 


a. 


..J£ 


Vertical  air  blast  separator 


Purity  Test — 

Sampling:  Take  from  each  sample  of  redtop  and  Kentucky  blue  grass,  one 
gram;  of  timothy,  two  grams;  of  meadow  fescue,  three  grams;  and  of  red 
clover  and  alfalfa,  five  grams  in  such  manner  as  to  make  them  thoroughly 
representative  of  the  sample  submitted.      (16) 

Separation:  Divide  sample  just  taken  into  three  parts  and  weigh  each  part 
as  follows:  (1)  inert  matter;  (2)  all  foreign  seed  except  adulterants;  (3)  pure 
seed  and  adulterants.     First  use  vertical   air-blast   separator  to   separate   chaff 


PERENNIAL  FORAGE  GRASSES  IO9 

and    seeds   of   diflFerent    specific    gravity,    then    use    sieves   to    separate    seeds   of 
similar  specific  gravity,  but  of  different  sizes;  then  complete  separation  by  hand. 

Adulteration:  From  the  mixture  of  pure  seed  and  adulterants  count  out 
1,000  seeds  indiscriminately,  then  separate  adulterants  from  pure  seeds* 
recording  number  and  weight  of  each. 

Weed    seeds:    Separate   and   identify    foreign    seeds    other    than    adulterants; 
where  a  kind  constitutes  less  than  1   per  cent,   report  by  number,  where  more 
than   1   per  cent,   report  the  percentage  by  weight. 
Germination   Test — 

Sampling:  Thoroughly  mix  the  entire  amount  of  pure  seed  obtained  in 
making  the  purity  test  and  select  200  seeds  of  redtop,  Kentucky  blue  grass, 
timothy,  meadow  fescue,  red  clover,  and  alfalfa;  100  seeds  of  hairy  vetch 
and  cowpeas  for  each  of  the  duplicate  tests. 

Placing  seeds:  Put  seeds  of  redtop,  Kentucky  blue  grass  and  timothy  on  top 
of  blotters  made  by  folding  twice  lengthwise  strips  6x19  inches  cut  from 
blue  blotting  paper,  120  pounds  to  the  ream  and  free  from  injurious  chemicals. 
The  blotting  paper  should  be  used  once  only.  Put  other  seeds  between  strips 
8x32  inches  of  medium  weight  canton  flannel  folded  twice  lengthwise.  The 
flannel   must  be  sterilized  by  boiling  each  time  before  using. 

Management  test:  Place  seed  in  germinating  chamber  at  68°  F.  (20°  C.) 
for  18  hours  and  86°  F.  (30°  C.)  for  six  hours.  Keep  paper  or  cloth  well 
moistened  with  potable  water  at  the  temperature  approximately  of  the  chamber. 

Counting  sprouts:  Remove  sprouted  seeds  and  record  number  every  second 
or  third  day  (three  times  a  week).  In  the  case  of  legumes,  count  the  remaining 
hard  seeds  and  add  one-third  to  the  number  of  viable  seeds. 

Duration  test:   For  grasses,   14  to  28  days;  for  legumes,  7  days. 
Re-test— 

If  duplicate  tests  vary  more  than  10  per  cent.,  re-test  and  also  make  a 
supplementary  test. 

Supplementary  test:  Place  in  a  greenhouse  flat  sterilized  sand  free  from 
organic  matter,  sifted  to  a  uniform  size  of  approximately  one  millimeter.  Place 
redtop,  Kentucky  blue  grass,  and  timothy  on  top  the  sand;  plant  other  seeds 
at  a  depth  about  equal  to  twice  their  greatest  diameter.  Place  in  room  with 
alternating  temperature  as  previously  indicated.  Keep  moist  and  shaded. 
Count  only  sprouts  which  occur  above  ground.  The  supplementary  test  should 
be  accepted  when  it  shows  a  higher  germination  than  the  chamber  test. 

Report:  Make  a  report  of  all  data  obtained;  state  the  per  cent,  of  viable 
pure  seeds  found  by  multiplying  the  percentage  of  pure  seeds  by  the  percentage 
of  total  germination  of  the  pure  seeds. 

116.  Collateral  Reading. — F.  G.  Stebler  and  C.  Schroter:  The  Best 
Forage  Plants,  pp.  30-38.     London:   David  Nutt,   1889. 

William  Jasper  Spillman:  Farm  Grasses  of  the  United  States,  pp.  154-178. 
New  York:   Orange  Judd   Co.,    1905. 

Thomas  Shaw:  Grasses  and  Clovers,  Field  Roots,  Forage  and  Fodder  Plants, 
pp.  14-17,     Minneapolis:   Northrup,  Braslan,  Goodwin  Co.,   1895. 


no  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

R.  A.  Oakley:  Orchard  Grass.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bu.  PI.  Ind.  Bui.  100, 
part  VI,  1906. 

P.  Beveridge  Kennedy:  Smooth  Brome  Grass.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Div. 
Agros.  Circ.  No.  18,  1899. 

A.  S.  Hitchcock:  Bermuda  Grass.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Div.  Agros.  Circ. 
No.  31,   1901. 


VI 


ANNUAL  FORAGE  PLANTS 

117.  Annual  Forage  Plants  are  a  class  of  annuals  which  are 
characterized  by  the  production  of  abundant  vegetative  growth 
during  the  first  year  from  seeding.  An  essential  feature  of  a 
successful  annual  forage  plant  is  that  it  should  produce  seed 
abundantly  and  cheaply,  in  order  not  to  make  the  cost  of  seeding 
too  expensive.  This  is  more  important  than  with  perennial 
forage  crops,  where  a  single  seeding  produces  two  or  more 
crops.  The  mere  fact  that  an  annual  plant  makes  a  high  yield 
per  acre  does  not  necessarily  commend  it  for  general  cultivation. 

Ordinarily  this  class  of  plants  enters  into  American  farm 
economy  incidentally.  Thus  the  cereals  produce  as  by-products 
large  quantities  of  straw  and  stover  used  as  food  and  bedding 
for  domestic  animals.  In  certain  portions  of  the  United  States 
where  the  standard  perennial  forage  grasses  are  less  successful 
the  cereals  are  frequently  harvested  for  hay.  In  1900,  6  per 
cent,  of  the  area  in  hay  and  forage  crops  consisted  of  cereals 
cut  green,  not  including  the  large  acreage  of  maize  cut  for 
silage  or  fodder.  More  than  half  the  acreage  of  the  smaller 
cereals  used  for  hay  is  in  California,  Oregon,  and  Washington, 
and  consists  chiefly  of  barley  and  wheat.  In  other  portions 
of  the  country  oats  are  used,  and  in  Canada  especially  the 
sowing  of  oats  and  peas  to  be  cut  for  soiling  or  forage  is  not 
uncommon.  (C.  A.  405)  In  eastern  United  States  rye  is  also 
used  for  soiling  purposes.     (C.  A.  491) 

In  addition  to  the  common  cereals,  the  millets  and  other 
closely  allied  plants  are  grown  in  various  parts  of  the  United 
States  for  forage.    These  are  usually  grown  as  "catch"  crops, 

III 


112  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

or  for  the  purpose  of  supplementing  the  usual  supply  of  hay 
and  forage.  In  1900  rather  less  than  3  per  cent,  of  the  area 
in  hay  and  forage  was  devoted  to  the  millets — excluding 
sorghum  and  kafir  corn,  which  are  grown  for  forage  as  well 
as  for  sirup  or  seed.  (C.  A.  559)  The  millets  are  most 
largely  grown  at  present  in  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Missouri,  Iowa, 
and  the  Dakotas,  but  would  seem  well  adapted  to  the  farm 
economy  of  the  southern  states,  both  because  of  their  climatic 
adaptation  and  because  the  standard  perennial  forage  plants 
are  less  adapted  to  that  section.^ 

118.  Millets. — The  number  of  species  known  as  millets  is 
very  large  and  includes  nearly  all  the  grasses  whose  grain  is 
used  for  human  food,  with  the  exception  of  wheat,  rye,  oats, 
barley,  and  rice — even  maize  in  some  countries  being  sometimes 
called  millet.  Excluding  the  sorghums,  the  millets  cultivated 
more  or  less  commonly  in  America  may  be  divided  into  four 
groups:  (i)  foxtail  or  common  millet,  (2)  broom  corn  millet, 
(3)  barnyard  millet,  and  (4)  pearl  millet. 

Of  these,  foxtail  millet  is  by  far  the  most  commonly  culti- 
vated. In  fact,  the  other  forms  can  scarcely  be  considered  to 
have  entered  into  general  cultivation.  In  this  country  millets 
are  grown  almost  exclusively  for  forage.  Broom  corn  millet 
is  sometimes  grown  for  its  grain,  and  slight  quantities  of  fox- 
tail millet  are  used  for  bird  seed.  In  Asia,  however,  millet 
seed  is  a  common  article  of  diet,  it  being  estimated  that  one- 
third  of  the  population  of  the  globe  use  millet  seed  of 
i^arious  kinds." 

119.  Foxtail  Millet  (Chaetochloa  italica  (L.)  Scribn.)  is 
divided    into    three    types:    Hungarian    grass,    common    millet 

1  Some  of  the  annual  forage  plants  have  been  treated  elsewhere  in  this 
volume  or  in  "The  Cereals  in  America,"  and  will  not  be  considered  in 
this  chapter. 

2  For  species  of  millet  grown  in  various  parts  of  the  world  for  seed  or 
forage,  see  Michigan  Sta.  Bui.  No.   117   (1894),  pp.  50-64. 


ANNUAL  FORAGE  PLANTS 


"3 


German  millet,  which  may  be  distinguished  by  the  size,  form, 
and  compactness  of  their  spikes  and  the  form  and  color  of  their 
seeds.     The  Michigan  Station  thus  describes  the  three  types  ^: 

Hungarian  grass.  Stems  several  from  each  root,  slender,  somewhat  inclined 
to  branch;  leaves  rather  narrow,  upright,  dark  green;  heads  erect  or  nearly 
so,  about  four  inches  long,  oblong,  dark  purple,  bristly,  very  compact;  seeds 
oval,  purple,  mixed  with  more  or  less  yellow  grains  due  chiefly  to  imperfect 
maturity.      Season   medium. 

Common  millet.     Stems  several  from  each  root,   slender,   seldom  branching; 


Common 


German 

Cultivated  varieties  of  foxtail  millet 
(After  Crozier) 


Hungarian 


leaves  rather  broad  and  lax;  heads  nodding,  about  6  inches  long,  tapering 
gradually  toward  the  end,  moderately  compact  above  but  loose  and  open  at 
the  base  showing  the  lateral  branches  of  which  it  is  composed,  color  green, 
turning  to  a  yellowish  brown  when  ripe;  seeds  large,  yellow,  oval.  Season  early. 
German  millet.  Stems  single,  or  at  most  a  few  from  each  root,  large  and 
stout,  unbranched;  leaves  rather  short,  broad,  and  stiff;  heads  usually  nodding, 
an  inch  in  diameter,  six  to  eight  inches  long,  composed  of  clustered  branches 
with  purplish  awns;  seeds  small,  round,  of  a  yellow  or  golden  color.  Season  late. 
A  northern  strain  has  more  slender  stems,  smaller  and  more  compact  heads, 
oval   seeds,   and   somewhat   earlier   maturity. 

1  Michigan  Sta.  Bui.  No.  117   (1894),  p.  5. 


114  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

Other  names  used  for  types  more  or  less  closely  related  to 
the  above  are  golden  millet,  Italian  millet,  Japanese  millet,  and 
California  millet.  The  original  or  wild  type  of  the  foxtail 
millet  is  believed  by  Hackel  to  be  the  well-known  foxtail  weed 
(Chaetochloa  viridis  (L.)  Scribn.).  The  foxtail  millets  grow 
erect  like  the  smaller  cereals,  and  under  cultivation  are  from 
two  to  five,  usually  three  to  four  feet  in  height. 

These  millets  are  hot  weather  plants  and  are  exceedingly 
drought  resistant.  While  they  thrive  best  on  fertile  soils,  they 
will  grow  on  relatively  poor  soils.  They  are  better  adapted  to 
sandy  than  to  clay  loams.  Under  proper  conditions  of  heat 
and  moisture  full  crops  may  be  obtained  in  six  to  ten  weeks. 
They  are  generally  considered  an  exhaustive  crop,  perhaps 
because  the  rapid  growth  temporarily  reduces  the  soil  moisture. 
They  are  good  crops  for  subduing  weeds,  especially  when  sown 
in  hot  weather,  and  are  not  infrequently  used  for  this  purpose. 
These  millets  are  subject  to  the  same  diseases  as  sorghum,  but 
are  usually  rather  free  from  fungous  diseases  or  insect 
enemies.     (C.  A.  533) 

Because  of  slowness  of  germination  and  early  growth, 
seeding  should  not  occur  until  continued  warm  weather  is  as- 
sured. In  the  North  Central  states  sowing  in  June  and  July 
gives  the  best  results.  The  number  of  seeds  varies  from  175,000 
to  250,000  per  pound.  Ordinarily  48  pounds  of  Hungarian 
grass  seed  and  50  pounds  of  millet  seed  are  sold  for  a  bushel. 
The  amount  of  seed  sown  per  acre  varies  from  one  to  four  pecks, 
a  moist  clay  soil  requiring  a  heavier  seeding  than  a  dry  sandy 
one.  A  common  practise  is  to  sow  three  pecks.  At  the  Michigan 
Station,  one  peck  per  acre  produced  a  heavier  yield  of  hay  than 
more  or  less  seed.  On  the  clay  soil  the  seed  did  not  germinate 
so  well ;  otherwise  the  lighter  seeding  would  probably  have 
given  the  best  results. 

When  sown  broadcast  for  seed,  not  more  than  one  peck  should 
be   used.     Better   seed   can   be   obtained   by   sowing  thinly   in 


ANNUAL  FORAGE  PLANTS  II5 

drills  and  cultivating  between  the  rows.  Millet  may  be  harvested 
and  handled  as  any  cereal  and  threshed  with  a  grain  separator, 
using  a  clover  screen  and  a  light  draft.  (C.  A.  166)  The 
average  yield  of  seed  per  acre  is  estimated  at  20  bushels,  al- 
though a  yield  of  85  bushels  has  been  reported.  Yields  of 
from  one  to  two  tons  as  a  "catch"  crop,  and,  under  favorable 
conditions,  from  three  to  five  tons  of  well-cured  hay  per  acre, 
may  be  obtained.  Millet  cures  rather  slowly,  but  when  properly 
stacked  will  stand  considerable  rain  without  material  injury. 
Where  live  stock,  especially  horses,  are  fed  largely  or  too  exclu- 
sively on  millet  hay,  ill  effects  are  sometimes  observed,  because  of 
the  action  of  the  millet  upon  the  kidneys.  The  short,  stiff  hairs 
or  bristles  so  abundant  in  the  spike  may  cause  injury  in  some 
cases.  For  these  reasons  millet  should  be  cut  before  the  seed 
is  well  formed  and  should  not  form  the  exclusive  roughage  of 
domestic  animals.  When  harvested  sufficiently  early  and  fed 
in  moderation,  millet  hay  makes  a  nutritious  and  desirable  food 
for  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep. 

120.  Broom  Corn  Millet  (Panicum  miliaceum  L.)  is  the 
species  which  is  chiefly  grown  in  Europe  and  hence  is  there 
known  as  common  millet.  It  has  been  given  the  name  broom 
corn  millet  in  this  country  because  the  inflorescence  is  a  panicle, 
as  in  broom  corn,  instead  of  a  spike,  as  in  foxtail  millet.  The 
leaves  and  stems  are  covered  with  stiff  hairs.  As  compared 
with  foxtail  millet,  the  seeds  are  larger,  rather  more  than  half 
the  number  per  pound,  and  may  be  white,  yellow,  or  red,  some- 
times nearly  black  in  color.  Usually  it  does  not  grow  as  tall 
as  foxtail  millet  and  produces  rather  less  forage  and  more 
seed  or  grain.  It  may  be  sown  later  in  the  season  or  farther 
north.  Because  of  its  ability  to  mature  a  crop  of  seed  in  short, 
hot,  dry  seasons,  it  has  been  grown  in  the  Dakotas  and  adjacent 
sections  as  a  substitute  for  maize,  and  hence  is  sometimes  called 
hog  millet.  It  is  said  not  to  have  the  diuretic  effect  of  fox- 
tail millet. 


ii6 


THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


121.  Barnyard  Millet  {Panicum  crus-galli  L.)  is  the  common 
annual  barnyard  weed  usually  called  Barnyard  grass.  As  a 
weed  it  is  widely  distributed  throughout  the  United  States,  and, 

in    fact,    all    the 

warmer   parts   of 

the      world.       In 

some   sections   of 

Mississippi    and 

Florida   it   makes 

a  good  part  of  the 

volunteer  growth 

which  is  used  for  hay.^  It  varies 

widely  in  size,  form,  color,  and 

time  of  maturity.   While  usually 

more    or    less    prostrate,    some 

forms  grow  quite  erect. 

A  large  erect  form  of  this 
grass,  native  of  southwestern 
United  States,  where  it  is 
known  to  the  Mohave  Indians 
as  "ankee,"  grew  seven  feet  in 
height  on  the  experiment 
ground  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  at  Washington  and 
made  a  luxuriant  growth  at  other  stations.  The  Massachusetts 
Station  has  imported  and  recommends  a  Japanese  variety  of 
this  species.  It  is  a  coarse-growing  form  with  a  heavy  leafage 
and  compact  beardless  heads.  It  matures  a  crop  in  about  ten 
weeks,  a  yield  at  the  rate  of  90  bushels  of  seed  and  seven  tons 
of  straw  per  acre  being  reported." 

Barnyard  millet  does  best  on  moist,  rich  lowlands,  and  does 
not  endure  drought  well.     A  bushel  of  seed  weighs  35  pounds. 


Broom  corn  millet  (after  Crozier) 
See  120,  page  115 


lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  No.  102,  p.  9. 
'Michigan  Sta.  Bui.  No.   117   (1894),  p.  46. 


ANNUAL  FORAGE   PLANTS  II7 

For  hay  one-fourth  to  one-half  bushel  of  seed  may  be  sown; 
for  seed,  somewhat  less,  Shama  millet  (Panicum  colonum  L.) 
and  sanwa  millet  (P.  friimentaceum^  Roxb.),  closely  related  to 
barnyard  millet,  have  been  tested  in  this  country  with  rather 
indifferent  results. 

122.  Other  Panicums. — A  number  of  other  species  of  the 
genus  Panicum  deserve  mention  rather  more  because  of  the 
forage  they  produce  through  their  volunteer  habit  than  because 
they  are  cultivated. 

In  the  Gulf  states  crab  grass  {P.  sanguinale  L.)  is  said  to 
furnish  more  forage  for  home  use  than  any  other  grass.  This 
it  does  by  the  volunteer  growth  occurring  after  other  crops 
have  been  removed  or  have  matured.  Colorado  grass  or  Texas 
millet  (P.  texanum  Buckl.),  a  plant  much  like  crab  grass,  but 
larger  and  coarser,  occurs  in  Louisiana  and  Texas,  where  on 
moist  soils  it  is  considered  a  satisfactory  volunteer  hay  crop. 
Guinea  grass  (P.  maximum  Jacq.)  has  become  established  in 
sections  of  Florida  and  elsewhere  near  the  Gulf  coast.  It  is 
perennial,  but  the  roots  are  killed  if  the  ground  freezes.  It 
ripens  seed  only  in  the  extreme  south.  In  regions  suited  to  it, 
it  is  highly  valued  for  hay  and  pasture. 

Para-grass  (P.  molle  Sw.),  like  Guinea  grass,  can  be  grown 
only  in  regions  not  subject  to  severe  frosts.  It  is  perennial  and 
does  not  produce  seed  in  this  country.  It  is  said  to  furnish 
cuttings  every  six  weeks  between  June  i  and  October  i,  and 
thereby  to  produce  a  large  amount  of  forage. 

123.  Pearl  Millet  (Pennisetum  spicatum  (L.)  R.  and  S.)  is 
a  coarse  annual  grass,  six  or  more  feet  in  height,  bearing  a 
long,  cylindrical  spike.  Its  principal  use  is  as  a  soiling  crop, 
and  on  account  of  its  habit  of  stooling  or  suckering,  it  is  pos- 
sible on  rich  moist  alluvial  lands  in  the  south  to  secure  two  to 

^  Index  Kewensis  gives  P.  frumeniaceum  Roxb.  r=  P.  colonum  L.,  and  P. 
frumentaceutn  Salisb.  =  Sorghum  vulgare  Pers. 


Il8  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

six  cuttings  during  a  season.  The  plant  when  young  is  palatable 
to  domestic  animals  and  fairly  nutritious,  but  if  allowed  to 
mature  it  is  too  coarse  and  woody  to  be  eaten  readily  and  is 
less  digestible.  It  should  be  cut  when  two  to  four  feet  in 
height,  four  or  five  inches  of  stubble  being  left  to  permit  quick 
renewal  of  sprouting.  Its  period  of  growth,  three  to  four 
months,  is  longer  than  that  of  other  millets.  Yields  are  reported 
ranging  from  4  to  40  tons  of  green  forage  and  from  i  to  16 
tons  of  cured  hay  per  acre.^  For  soiling,  it  is  sown  in  drills 
three  feet  or  more  apart  at  the  rate  of  three  to  eight  pounds  per 
acre,  depending  on  character  of  the  soil,  and  for  hay,  it  may 
be  sown  in  drills  18  inches  apart  or  broadcast  at  the  rate  of 
one-half  bushel  of  seed  per  acre.  Seeding  is  done  in  early 
April  to  last  of  May,  always  aiming  to  avoid  frost.  Although 
widely  advertised  under  at  least  18  different  names,^  it  has 
not  given  general  satisfaction,  believed  to  be  due,  in  part,  to 
the  poor  quality  of  the  seed.  A  bushel  of  cleaned  seed  weighs 
46  to  56  pounds. 

124.  Teosinte  (Euchlaena  mexicana  Schrad.). — "This  is  the  plant  of  which 
Prof.  Asa  Gray  said:  'Possibly  afifording  an  opportunity  for  one  to  make 
millions  of  blades  of  grass  grow  where  none  of  any  account  grew  before.*  At 
the  experiment  stations  of  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  Georgia,  and  Florida,  it  has 
given  the  heaviest  yields  of  any  of  the  forage  crops  grown,  Georgia  reporting 
38,000  pounds  of  green  forage  per  acre,  Mississippi  44,000,  and  Louisiana 
the  enormous  amount  of  over  50  tons.  It  needs  a  long  season  of  hot  weather, 
a  rich  soil,  and  abundant  moisture  in  order  to  succeed  well,  and  it  is  useless 
to  plant  it  where  all  these  conditions  cannot  be  had.  It  is  a  remarkably 
vigorous  grower,  reaching  10  to  12  feet  in  height,  with  an  unusually  abundant 
supply  of  leaves  and  tender  stems,  which  continue  to  grow  until  killed  by 
frosts.  If  cut  when  it  reaches  4  to  S  feet  in  height  it  makes  excellent  fodder, 
and  will  produce  a  second  crop  fully  as  large  as  the  first.  If  left  to  grow 
until  September  or  October  it  furnishes  excellent  material  for  the  silo,  in 
greater  amount  per  acre  than  either  corn  or  sorghum,  and  there  are  few 
plants    which    are    its    equal    for    soiling    purposes.      Its    leaves    are    similar    to 

lU.   S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  No.   168,  p.   13. 

2  The  most  common  synonyms  of  this  plant  on  the  market  are  pencilaria, 
Mand's  wonder,  and  cat-tail  millet, — so  called  from  the  resemblance  of  the 
fruiting  spike  to  that  of  cat-tail  or  flag  of  marshes. 


ANNUAL  FORAGE  PLANTS  II9 

those  of  sorghum,  but  much  longer,  and  the  stalks  contain  from  8  to  10  per 
cent,  of  sugar.  Its  value  for  feeding  and  soiling  is  apparent  from  the  fact 
that  the  entire  crop  of  50  tons  per  acre  grown  at  the  Louisiana  Station  was 
sold  to  local  dairymen  at  the  rate  of  $2  per  ton  while  standing  in  the  field. 
Its  season  of  growth  is  so  long  that  it  seldom  matures  seed  north  of  latitude 
30  degrees,  but  it  has  ripened  well  at  the  Louisiana  and  Florida  stations. 
The  seed,  1  to  3  pounds  per  acre,  should  be  planted  in  hills  4  to  5  feet  apart 
each  way,  about  cotton-planting  time,  and  the  crop  cultivated  like  corn.  The 
greater  distance  should  be  given  on  the   richer  soils."  ^ 

125  Salt-bushes. — There  is  a  large  number  of  introduced 
and  native  species  of  the  genus  Atriplex,  known  as  salt-bushes.' 
Some  are  perennial,  others  are  annual.  These  salt-bushes  are 
adapted  to  the  strongly  alkaline  lands  in  the  arid  sections  of 
the  United  States.  Australian  salt-bushes,  introduced  into  this 
country,  are  said  to  produce  15  to  20  tons  of  green  food  and 
3  to  5  tons  of  dry  forage  per  acre.  It  is  claimed  that  lands 
slightly  too  alkaline  for  the  growth  of  cereals  may,  by  the 
growth  of  salt-bushes,  be  made  to  produce  cereals  on  account 
of  the  removal  of  the  alkali  by  the  salt-bushes. 

The  seed  may  be  sown  at  any  time  during  spring  and  summer 
when  the  soil  is  sufficiently  warm  and  moist  to  germinate  the 
seed.  Seeds  germinate  best  when  sown  on  the  surface  without 
any  covering.  Good  results  have  been  obtained,  it  is  claimed, 
by  sowing  the  seed  on  the  ground  when  it  is  wet  and  at  once 
driving  a  flock  of  sheep  over  the  land. 

126.  Collateral  Reading. — A.  A.  Crozier:  Millet.  Michigan  Sta.  Bui. 
No.  117,   1894. 

Thomas  A.  Williams:  Millets.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  No. 
101,   1891. 

C.  R.  Ball:  Saccharine  Sorghums  for  Forage.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers' 
Bui.  No.  246,   1906. 

T.  L.  Lyon  and  A.  S.  Hitchcock:  Pasture,  Meadow,  and  Forage  Crops  in 
Nebraska.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bu.  PI.  Ind.  Bui.  No.  59,   1904. 

F.  Lamson-Scribner:  Progress  of  Economic  and  Scientific  Agrostology.  In 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook   1899,  pp.  347-366. 

lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  No.  102   (1899),  p.  27. 
3  Farmers'  Bui.  No.  108   (1900)  mentions  18  species. 


I20  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROFS    IN    AMERICA 

Jared  G.  Smith:  Salt-bushes.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Div.  Agros.  Circ.  No.  3, 
1896. 

P.  Beveridge  Kennedy:  Salt-bushes.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Farmers'  Bui.  No. 
108,    1900. 

F.  Lamson-Scribner:  Southern  Forage  Plants.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers' 
Bui.   No.   102,   1899. 

Jared  G.  Smith:  Grazing  Problems  in  the  Southwest  and  How  to  Meet 
Them.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Div.  Agros,  Bui.  No.  16   (1899),  pp.  7-26. 


VII 


LEGUMINOUS  FORAGE  CROPS 

I.     GENERAL    CHARACTERS 

127.  Name. — The  term  legume  will  be  applied  to  any  plant 
or  crop  belonging  to  the  pea  family  (Papilionaceae)  or  to 
the  older  and  more  inclusive  pulse  family  (Leguminosae) , 
whether  grown  for  seed  or  for  forage.  Those  legumes  grown 
exclusively  or  principally  for  their  seeds  will  be  considered  in 
chapters  following  the  discussion  of  those  leguminous  crops 
which  are  grown  exclusively  or  principally  as  fodder  for  do- 
mestic animals.  Clover  as  a  generic  term  will  be  used  to  apply 
to  the  plants  of  the  genus  Trifolium — such  as  red  clover,  alsike 
clover — and  will  not  be  used  to  apply  to  Japan  clover,  alfalfa, 
or  other  leguminous  forage  plants. 

128.  Kinds. — The  leguminous  forage  plants  cultivated  in 
America  comprise  for  the  most  part  clover  (Trifolium) ,  alfalfa 
and  related  species  (Medicago),  lespedeza  or  Japan  clover 
{Lespedeza),  soy  bean  {Glycine),  cowpea  (Vigna),  velvet 
bean  (Mucuna),  and  vetch  (Vicia). 

The  soy  bean  and  the  cowpea  are  sometimes  cultivated  for 
their  seeds,  while  one  form  of  the  common  pea  (Pisum)  is 
sometimes  cultivated  for  forage.  The  various  forms  of  the 
bean  (Phascolns)  and  the  peanut  (Arachis)  are  usually  culti- 
vated primarily  for  their  seeds  or  pods.  While  the  sweet 
clovers  (Melilotus)  are  of  little  value  for  forage  purposes  be- 
cause of  their  lack  of  palatability,  nevertheless  seed  is  obtainable 
through  seedsmen.  Some  other  kinds  of  legumes  are  also 
advertised  for  forage  purposes,  although  they  have  no  adapta- 
tion to  American  conditions — or  at  least  are  confined  to  a  very 

m 


122 


THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


limited  range.  Such  are  milk  or  Chinese  vetch  (Astragalus 
sinicits  h.) ,  beggar  weed  (Desmodium  tortiiosum  D.C.),  sainfoin 
{Onobrychis  sativa  Lam.),  flat  pea  (Lathyrus  sylvestris  L.), 
furze  {Ulex  europaeus  L.),  bird's-foot  trefoil  (Lotus  cor- 
niculatus  L.). 

129.    Common  Characters. — The  leguminous  plants  have,  with 
few  exceptions,  the  following  characters :  The  leaves  are  alternate 

and    spirally    arranged,    not 
two-rowed,  as  in  grasses.  The 


TWO  POSTERIOR  CALYXXEETil 

■  •  If 


STANDARD 


KEEL 


BRACT. 


Diagram     of    a    leguminous   flower    (after 
Eichler).     Coiurtesy  of  David  Nutt,  London 


leaf  consists  of  a  long  stalk 
or  petiole  and  three  or  more 
leaflets.  At  the  base  of  the 
petiole  is  a  pair  of  lateral 
outgrowths,  or  the  stipules. 
Each  flower  is  composed  of 
calyx,  corolla,  stamens,  and 
pistil.  The  parts  are  in  fives, 
unequal  in  size,  and  bilater- 
ally symmetrical.  The  sepals 
are  united;  the  petals  are  free,  except  in  clover.  The 
largest  petal,  the  standard,  lies  between  the  two  superior 
teeth  of  the  calyx  and  terminates  in  a  broad  portion, 
the  limb,  which  is  bent  upward  and  notched  at  its  apex. 
The  petals  on  either  side  are  called  the  wings,  while  the  two 
petals  below,  united  more  or  less  by  their  lower  margins,  are 
known  as  the  keel.  In  the  bud,  the  folded  standard  overlaps 
the  wings,  while  the  wings  overlap  the  keel.  There  are  ten 
stamens.  Through  a  considerable  portion  of  their  length  nine 
of  these  stamens  unite  by  their  filaments  to  form  a  tube  sur- 
rounding the  single  pistil.  The  tenth  and  superior  stamen  fills 
up  a  slit  in  the  tube.  The  stigma  and  anthers  lie  in  the  apex 
of  the  keel.  The  ovulary,  which  is  one-celled,  develops  into 
a  pod  containing  one  or  more  seeds  attached  along  the  upper 
margin — that  is,  toward  the  standard.     The  style  and  stigma 


LEGUMINOUS   FORAGE   CROPS  1 23 

are  single.  The  seeds  all  have  the  general  structure  described 
in  the  common  field  bean.  (255)  The  legumes  differ  from 
the  cereals  and  other  seeds  of  the  grass  family  in  that  the 
seeds  of  the  latter  have  a  small  embryo,  most  of  the  seed  con- 
sisting of  endosperm,  while  the  seed  skin  of  the  legumes  is 
completely  filled  by  the  large  embryo.  This  accounts  for  the 
highly  nitrogenous  character  of  the  legumes  and  for  the  high 
percentage  of  starch  in  the  cereals. 

There  is  one  tap  root  with  many  lateral  branches,  the  latter 
mostly  near  the  surface  of  the  soil.  So  far  as  known,  all 
leguminous  plants  bear  root-tubercles  or  nodules  on  their  roots 
under  suitable  conditions,  from  which  it  is  inferred  that  all 
possess,  with  the  aid  of  bacteria,  the  power  of  assimilating  the 
free  nitrogen  of  the  air. 

130.  Variations. — Great  variations  in  botanical  characters 
and  in  habits  of  growth  exist  among  the  different  species  of 
legumes,  and  considerable  variations  are  often  found  among 
different  individuals  of  the  same  species. 

In  general,  the  plant  varies  in  size,  shape,  and  hairiness  of 
the  parts,  and  in  proportion  of  main  stem,  branches,  and  leaves. 
The  stems  may  be  erect,  decumbent,  spreading,  or  trailing. 
Some  species  are  strongly  stoloniferous,  as  white  clover;  some 
slightly  so,  as  alsike  clover;  and  others  not  at  all,  as  alfalfa. 
The  leaflets  may  radiate  from  a  common  center,  palmately 
lohed,  as  in  clover ;  the  side  leaflets  may  be  arranged  along  the 
side  of  the  midrib,  pinnate,  as  in  alfalfa;  and  may  have  an 
even  number  of  leaflets,  pari-pinnate,  or  an  odd  number,  impari- 
pinnate.  When  there  is  an  even  number  of  leaflets  the  midrib 
may  end  in  a  tendril,  as  in  vetch.  The  stipules  may  be  attached 
to  the  petioles  or  may  be  free.  The  variety  of  forms  of  the 
stipules  constitutes  one  of  the  most  distinguishing  vegetative 
characters  of  the  legumes,  especially  in  the  clovers. 

The  flowers  may  arise  singly  or  may  be  distributed  along 


124  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

the  end  of  the  stem  or  branch,  a  raceme;  or  may  spring  from 
the  end  of  the  stem  or  branch  in  a  whorl,  an  umbel;  or  may 
be  arranged  along  the  stem  or  branch  in  a  head-like  cluster, 
a  capitulum.  In  some  species  the  flowers  of  the  umbel  or  head 
turn  downward,  reiiexed,  as  the  seeds  mature. 

The  anterior  tooth  of  the  calyx,  the  one  next  the  keel  of 
the  corolla,  varies  in  length  when  compared  with  the  other 
teeth.  This  furnishes  a  means  of  identifying  species.  The 
petals  vary  throughout  nearly  all  the  colors  of  the  rainbow. 
In  some  cases  the  color  is  quite  constant  within  the  species, 
as  in  alfalfa;  in  other  species  it  is  extremely  variable,  as  in 
the  sweet  pea. 

The  depth  to  which  the  root  grows  is  variable.  In  white 
clover  the  roots  are  comparatively  shallow,  while  in  alfalfa 
they  have  been  reported,  on  what  seems  to  be  entirely  reliable 
authority,  at  extraordinary  depths.^  (i97)  C.  W.  Irish 
reports  finding  alfalfa  roots  coming  through  the  roof  of  a 
tunnel  129  feet  below  the  surface  of  an  old  alfalfa  field.^ 

131.  Pollination. — Unlike  the  flowers  of  many  members  of 
the  grass  family,  in  which  the  pollen  is  freely  distributed 
through  the  air  by  means  of  the  wind,  the  organization  of  the 
flowers  of  the  legumes  is  such  that  cross-pollination  can  occur 
only  by  means  of  insects  or  other  external  agencies.  That 
pollen  in  some  species,  and,  perhaps,  in  all  species,  may  pollinate 
the  stigma  of  its  own  flower,  seems  certain.  That  the  showy 
flowers  common  to  the  legumes  serve  to  attract  insects  which 
visit  them  for  nectar  and  pollen,  and  thus  to  bring  about  cross- 
pollination,  seems  equally  certain.  Whether  self-fertilization 
or  cross-fertilization  most  commonly  occurs  is  a  matter  re- 
quiring further  investigation. 

1  J.  C.  Hogenson  reports  having  found  alfalfa  roots  at  a  depth  of  45  feet 
in  digging  a  well  in  northern  Utah, — Thesis,   Cornell   University,  p.  8. 

2  F.  D.  Coburn,  "The  Book  of  Alfalfa,"  p.  6. 


LEGUMINOUS   FORAGE   CROPS  125 

II.     ACQUIREMENT   OF    NITROGEN 

132.  Acquirement  of  Free  Nitrogen. — Leguminous  plants  are 
characterized  by  containing  a  relatively  high  percentage  of 
protein.  This  fact  is  probably,  in  some  measure,  related 
to  the  fact  established  by  Atwater,^  Hellriegel,  Lawes 
and  Gilbert,"  and  others  that  these  plants  possess,  in  con- 
nection with  the  micro-organisms  in  their  nodules  or  root- 
tubercles,  the  ability  to  assimilate  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air. 
The  Kentucky  Station  found  air-dry  tubercle-bearing  roots  of 
soy  beans  to  contain  16.9  per  cent,  of  protein;  while  roots  of 
soy  beans,  grown  at  the  same  time  and  in  the  same  soil,  but  not 
bearing  tubercles,  contained  but  11.3  per  cent,  of  protein. 
Similar  differences  appear  in  the  protein  content  of  stem, 
leaves,  and  seeds  of  inoculated  and  uninoculated  plants.' 

The  influence  of  the  micro-organisms  in  acquiring  nitrogen 
appears  to  be  related  to  the  available  nitrogen  (water  soluble 
nitrates)  in  the  soil.  In  certain  soils,  or  under  certain  condi- 
tions of  soil,  certain  leguminous  plants  produce  tubercles  very 
abundantly;  while  in  other  soils,  or  under  other  conditions  of 
soil,  tubercles  are  produced  much  less  abundantly,  although  the 
organisms  are  present  in  both  cases.  It  has  been  observed  that 
the  tubercles  are  produced  most  abundantly  in  soils  of  low 
nitrogen  content.  It  is  inferred,  therefore,  that  leguminous 
plants  acquire  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air  when  compelled  to 
do  so,  but  that  when  soils  contain  an  abundance  of  available 
nitrogen  (water  soluble  nitrates)  they  acquire  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  nitrogen  from  the  soil  supply.  The  relative  proportion 
of   the   nitrogen    supply    which   these    plants   obtain    from   the 

'^  W.  O.  Atwater:  The  acquisition  of  atmospheric  nitrogen  by  plants.  In 
American   Chemical  Journal,   Vol.    VI    (1884-5),   pp.  365-388. 

2  J  B.  Lawes  and  J.  H.  Gilbert:  The  sources  of  the  nitrogen  of  our  le- 
guminous crops.  In  Royal  Agricultural  Society  Journal,  Vol.  II,  3d  ser. 
(1891),   p.   657. 

3  Michigan   Sta.   Bui.   No.   224    (1905). 


126  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

soluble  nitrates  of  the  soil  and  from  the  free  nitrogen  of  the 
air  has  never  been  determined.  Nevertheless  the  fact  that 
clovers  and  other  leguminous  plants  do  in  practise  improve  the 
crop-producing  power  of  the  soils,  especially  for  cereals  and 
true  grasses,  indicates,  although  it  does  not  prove,  that  the 
amount  of  free  nitrogen  taken  from  the  air  may  not  be  incon- 
siderable/ "It  is  one  of  the  secrets  of  profitable  farming  to 
draw  from  the  air  as  much  nitrogen  as  possible  by  the  alter- 
nation of  crops."  ^ 

133.  Influence  of  Root-tubercles  on  the  Growth  of  Plants. — 
In  the  case  of  a  number  of  leguminous  plants  it  has  been  shown 
that  those  which  contain  tubercles  on  their  roots  grow  more 
vigorously  than  those  which  do  not.  The  poorer  the  soil  in 
available  nitrogen  the  greater  has  been  found  the  difference 
between  plants  possessing  tubercles  and  those  which  do  not. 
In  some  instances,  and,  perhaps,  with  all  our  more  commonly 

1  There  is  a  considerable  number  of  facts  scattered  throughout  the  literature 
of  the  subject  which  may  be  taken,  if  not  as  an  absolute,  at  least  as  a  very 
satisfactory  proof  that  the  amounts  of  atmospheric  nitrogen  fixed  may  be 
quite  large.  Hall  ("On  the  accumulation  of  fertility  by  land  allowed  to  run 
wild,"  The  Journal  of  Agricultural  Science,  Vol.  I,  part  2,  May,  1905)  shows 
that  a  portion  of  the  Broadbalk  field  at  Rothamsted  left  to  itself  for  20  years 
apparently  gained  nitrogen  at  the  rate  of  more  than  100  pounds  per  annum. 
Schultz-Lupitz  (Zwischenfruchtbau  auf  leichten  Boden,  Berlin,  1901,  p.  8) 
states  that  the  fixation  of  atmospheric  nitrogen  by  legumes  is  not  accompanied 
by  a  reduction  in  the  nitrogen  content  of  the  soil.  One  soil  area  at  Lupitz 
bore  28  successive  crops  of  lupines  while  receiving  annually  applications  of 
kainit  alone.  Notwithstanding  the  very  large  amounts  of  nitrogen  removed 
in  the  28  crops,  the  soils  were  steadily  gaining  in  nitrogen,  as  was  demonstrated 
by  the  soil  analyses  made  at  different  times  by  Maercker,  Orth,  Frank,  and 
Holdefleiss.  The  investigations  of  Vogel  in  1894  showed  fixation  of  nitrogen 
at  the  rate  of  140  kilos  a  hectare,  and  he  estimated  the  total  nitrogen  harvest 
in  the  fall  of  that  year  (on  250  morgen)  at  17,200  pounds,  equivalent  in  round 
numbers  to  1,100  zentners  of  sodium  nitrate.  The  box  experiments  of  the 
New  Jersey  Station  (Bui.  No.  180)  may  be  taken  as  a  further  proof  that 
leguminous  crops  may  not  only  yield  large  quantities  of  nitrogen  in  their 
substance,  but  leave  the  soil   richer  in  combined  nitrogen. 

2  George  Ville:   Artificial   Manures,  p.   37. 


LEGUMINOUS  FORAGE  CROPS  I27 

cultivated  legumes,  the  presence  of  tubercles  is,  in  most  soils, 
essential  to  a  growth  that  is  economically  successful.  This 
has  been  demonstrated  many  times  with  alfalfa  when  introduced 
into  regions  not  hitherto  growing  alfalfa. 

134.  Character  of  the  Tubercles. — The  tubercles  vary  in  shape 
and  size  with  the  species  of  plant,  each  species  bearing  tubercles 
that  are  fairly  characteristic  in  size  and  form.  They  may  be 
round,  oval,  pear-shaped,  or  variously  lobed.  They  may  vary 
in  size  from  0.06  inch  or  less  to  0.31  inch  or  more  in  diameter. 
They  are  generally  rather  loosely  attached  and  are  readily 
detached  when  roots  are  pulled  from  the  soil.  They  are  a 
modification  of  the  cell  structure  of  the  roots,  caused  by  the 
presence  of  the  micro-organism.  They  are  softer  and  more 
juicy  than  the  ordinary  root  structures.  The  organisms  enter 
the  plant  through  the  root  hairs,  hyphae  being  formed  which 
enable  the  bacteria  to  pass  from  cell  to  cell.^ 

Tubercles  occur  on  the  roots  of  other  than  leguminous  plants. 
Some  are  due  to  the  larvae  of  insects;  others  to  fungi  proper 
(mycelium-bearing  cryptogams)  ;  while  others  may  be  due  to 
bacteria.  Hiltner  has  shown  that  some  plants  other  than  leg- 
umes fix  nitrogen  with  the  aid  of  bacteria  residing  in  the 
tubercles  of  their  roots. 

135.  Form  of  the  Organism. — It  is  not  the  tubercle  that  aids 
the  plant  in  the  acquirement  of  the  free  nitrogen,  but  the  or- 
ganisms for  which  the  tubercle  constitutes  a  home.  The 
organism  (Bacillus  radicicola  Beyerinck)  which  occupies  the 
tubercle  is  generally  considered  to  be  a  bacterium,  although  it 
contains  some  exceptional  features  of  structure  and  develop- 
ment. The  process  by  which  these  organisms  find  their  condi- 
tions of  growth  in  the  host  plant,  and  at  the  same  time  promote 
the  growth  of  the  host,  has  been  called  symbiosis.''    The  nature 

*  See  G.  F.  Atkinson:  Cont.  Biol.  Org.  Causing  Leguminous  Tubercles;  in 
Bot.  Gaz.  Vol.  XVIII,  pp.  157,  226,  257. 

2  The  Chinese  word  for  this  process  means  friendship. 


128  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

of  symbiosis  is  not  well  understood.  That  tubercles  contain  a 
high  percentage  of  nitrogen  is  established.  Whether  the  host 
plant  secures  its  supply  of  nitrogen  as  a  result  of  the  life 
processes  of  the  bacteria,  or  as  a  result  of  the  death  and  de- 
composition of  the  bacteria,  is  not  definitely  known. 

136.  Acquirement  of  Nitrogen  without  Legumes. — Arable 
soils  may  gain  nitrogen  without  the  aid  of  legumes.  If  sterilized 
soil  is  allowed  to  stand  without  growing  any  plants,  the  nitrogen 
content  will  not  increase;  but  if  unsterilized  soil  in  good  tilth 
is  allowed  to  stand,  the  nitrogen  content  may  increase. 

A  considerable  number  of  bacterial  species  in  the  soil  possess 
in  a  more  or  less  marked  degree  the  power  of  utilizing  ele- 
mentary nitrogen  for  their  growth.  There  is  some  reason  to 
suppose,  even,  that  Bacillus  radicicola,  the  organism  which 
leads  to  the  formation  of  tubercles  on  the  roots  of  legumes, 
may  grow  in  the  soil  outside  of  the  legume  tubercles,  and  cause 
there  the  fixation  of  slight  amounts  of  nitrogen.  Of  the  soil 
organisms  known  to  possess  the  ability  to  fix  atmospheric 
nitrogen,  there  are  two  distinct  groups  that  are  particularly 
prominent.  The  first  of  these  groups  is  represented  by  Clostri- 
dium pasteurianum,  an  anaerobic  butyric  ferment  isolated  and 
described  by  Winogradsky.^  The  second  group  is  represented 
by  the  Azotobacter  species,  particularly  Azotohacter  chroococ- 
cum  Beyerinck  ^  and  A.  vinelandii  Lipman  and  A.  bcyerincki 
Lipman.^  The  exact  significance  of  these  organisms  in  the 
economy  of  soil  nitrogen  is  still  to  be  determined.  Some  of 
the  recorded  data  show  that  cultivated  soils  may  at  times  gain 
very  considerable  quantities  of  combined  nitrogen  without  the 
intervention  of  legumes.  Thus  Kiihn  *  was  able  to  grow  non- 
leguminous   crops   on   the   same   land   for  20  years   without   a 

iCompt.  rend.   1894,  118,  p.  353. 
2Centr.  f.  Bakt.  Vol.  VII    (1901),   Part  II,  p.   561. 
•New  Jersey  Sta.  Rpts.,   1903,   1904,   1905. 
Centr,  f.  Bakt.,  Vol.  VI    (1901),   Part  II,   p.  601. 


LEGUMINOUS   FORAGE   CROPS  129 

diminution  in  yield,  even  though  non-nitrogenous  fertilizers 
alone  were  used.  Hall  ^  found  an  annual  gain  of  25  pounds  of 
nitrogen  per  acre  on  Geescroft  field,  for  the  period  1882  to  1904, 
and  that  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  this  field  bore  no 
leguminous  vegetation. 

137.  Dissemination  of  the  Bacteria  by  Natural  Means. — The 
bacteria  found  in  the  tubercles  of  each  germs,  and,  perhaps, 
of  each  species  of  leguminous  plants,  differ  in  some  ways  from 
those  found  on  others.  The  various  bacteria  are  generally 
regarded  to  be  so  closely  allied  that  forms  on  one  species  of 
legume  may  adapt  themselves  to  other  closely  allied  species 
and  genera.  It  is  held  to  be  probable  that  the  time  required 
for  one  form  to  adapt  itself  to  an  unaccustomed  host  depends 
somewhat  on  the  degree  of  relationship  between  the  respective 
host  plants.  It  has  been  found  in  practise  that  closely  related 
species  of  legume  when  following  each  other  bear  tubercles 
freely  without  any  inoculation  of  the  soil;  that  distantly  related 
species  the  first  year  of  planting  on  new  ground  do  not  gen- 
erally bear  tubercles  freely  the  first  year,  but  do  so  generally 
the  second  or  third  year  when  the  sowing  is  repeated  on  the 
same  ground. 

The  New  York  State  Station  has  determined  that  these  or- 
ganisms usually  die  within  a  few  days  when  dried  under  the 
usual  atmospheric  conditions.^  The  inoculation  of  one  plat  of 
ground  from  an  adjacent  plat  has  not  been  found  to  occur 
commonly,  except  through  the  washing  of  soil  from  one  plat 
to  another.  Much  more  extended  and  accurate  observations 
are  necessary  in  order  to  determine  the  means  and  conditions 
under  which  the  organisms  are  disseminated. 

"Not  every  leguminous  plant  requires  artificial  inoculation  in  order  to 
produce  tubercles.  Many  soils  are  naturally  supplied  with  the  tubercle-pro- 
ducing germs  through  the  growth  of  wild  leguminous  plants.     Moreover,  where 

^Journal  Agr.  Science  I,  May,  1905, 

2  New  York  State  Sta.  Bui.  No.  270   (1905),  0.  382- 


130  THE   FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

a  given  legume  is  extensively  grown  there  is  probably  a  wholesale  inoculation 
of  surrounding  soils  by  means  of  the  wind,  which  carries  the  germ-laden 
dust.  This  seems  to  be  the  explanation  of  the  fact  that  on  no  soil  has  the 
writer  been  able  to  find  cowpeas  free  from  tubercles,  and  many  observations 
have  been  made,  all  in  localities  where  the  culture  of  this  plant  is  general. 
The  seed  of  certain  legumes  may  also  be  the  means  of  conveying  the  nec- 
essary germs  to  a  soil  lacking  the  appropriate  form  of  germ  life.  This  seems 
to  be  the  true  explanation  of  the  fact  that  lespedeza  (and  bur  clover  from 
unhuUed  seed)  have  developed  tubercles  in  all  soils  where  we  have  thus  far 
tested  them.  Seeds  of  both  these  plants  are  borne  in  close  contact  with  the 
ground  where  particles  of  the  germ-laden  soil  easily  lodge  upon  the  burs  or 
seed  coats. 

"Even  though  few  or  no  tubercles  may  be  produced  the  first  year  where 
a  rare  legume  is  grown  for  the  first  time,  there  is  an  increase  in  the  number 
of  tubercles  from  year  to  year  if  the  same  legume  continues  to  occupy  the 
land.  Hence  we  should  not  look  upon  inoculation  as  needing  to  be  repeated, 
but  as  a  procedure  useful  only  or  chiefly  in  the  first  year's  growth  of  a 
rare  legume."  ^ 

Poor,  thin  soils  deficient  in  humus  and  lime  may  make  it 
worth  while  to  use  inoculation  materials  even  for  legumes  that 
are  not  rare. 

138.  Need  of  Inoculation. — In  the  case  of  certain  legumes, 
notably  alfalfa  and  soy  beans,  it  has  been  abundantly  demon- 
strated that  by  placing  loo  pounds  or  more  of  soil  from  a  field 
which  had  the  previous  year  grown  tubercle-bearing  plants  of 
the  same  species  upon  each  acre  to  be  sown  with  the  legume 
in  question,  the  frequency  of  tubercles  upon  plants  is  in- 
creased thereby  and  the  vigor  of  the  plant  is  enhanced.     (209) 

When  leguminous  plants  are  grown  in  sterilized  soil  to  which 
no  organisms  are  allowed  entrance  the  plants  do  not  develop 
tubercles;  but  if  a  pure  culture  of  the  proper  organism  is  added, 
tubercles  will  develop  abundantly,  assuming  other  conditions  to 
be  suitable.  Further,  if  certain  legumes,  notably  alfalfa  and 
soy  beans,  are  grown  in  soil  which  has  not  previously  grown 
them,  although  the  soil  may  have  grown  distantly  related 
legumes,  in  many  instances  the  plants  will  either  not  develop 
tubercles  or  will  develop  them  sparingly;  while  if  the  propef 

1  Alabama  Sta.  Bui.  No.  87   (1897),  pp.  482,  483. 


LEGUMINOUS   FORAGE   CROPS  I3I 

organisms  are  added  to  the  soil  in  sufficient  quantity,  tubercles 
will  form  in  abundance.  It  is,  therefore,  recognized  to  be  good 
farm  practise  to  supply  the  proper  organisms  when  certain 
legumes  are  introduced  upon  the  farm  for  the  first  time.  The 
West  Virginia  Station  has  shown  that  there  were  present  in 
the  soil  from  what  was  once  an  old  garden  bacteria  that  could, 
without  the  use  of  artificial  cultures,  produce  tubercles  on  10 
genera  of  legume  representing  14  different  species.  In  this 
soil  soy  beans  failed  to  produce  tubercules.^ 

It  has  been  held  that  it  is  possible,  by  artificial  means,  to 
grow  organisms  that  would  have  a  greater  vitality  than  organ- 
isms of  the  same  kind  native  in  the  soil,  and  that  in  conformity 
with  this  idea  it  would  be  desirable  to  add  these  organisms  to 
a  soil  already  containing  similar  organisms.  For  example,  it 
is  held  that  it  would  be  desirable  to  add  to  soil  already  growing 
clover  these  artificially  grown  and  more  virulent  organisms  in 
order  to  get  a  more  vigorous  growth  of  clover.  Experiments 
by  Hiltner  and  others  indicate  that  this  is  possible. 

139.  Methods  of  Inoculation. — There  are  three  methods  of 
securing  the  inoculation  of  leguminous  plants: 

1.  The  continued  growing  of  the  same  species  of  plant  until 
the  organisms  already  in  the  soil  adapt  themselves  to  the  host, 
or  until  the  few  organisms  of  the  proper  form  or  function, 
which  may  unintentionally  have  been  applied,  multiply  and 
produce  the  requisite  abundance  of  tubercles. 

2.  The  adding  of  artificial  and  more  or  less  pure  cultures  of 
the  proper  form  of  the  organisms.  The  organisms  are  readily 
grown,  but  the  difficulty  is  with  an  economic  and  effective 
method  of  distribution.  Attempts  were  made  to  distribute  in 
tin  foil  pieces  of  cotton  which  had  been  dipped  in  a  solution 
containing  the  organisms  and  then  dried.  When  these  organ- 
isms  are   dried   quickly   in   a  dry   atmosphere  they   will   retain 

iWest  Virginia   Sta.   Bui.   No.   105    (1906),  p.  Z21. 


132  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

their  vitality  for  a  considerable  time.  It  was  found,  however, 
that  when  the  organisms  were  dried  slowly  under  the  usual 
atmospheric  conditions,  as  was  done  in  commercial  practise,  the 
organisms  were  killed/ 

3.  To  apply  soil  from  a  field  that  has  produced  abundantly 
tubercle-bearing  plants  of  the  species  it  is  desired  to  grow. 
This  is  a  successful  method  of  inoculation.  Soil  at  the  rate  of 
100  or  more  pounds  to  the  acre  is  spread  upon  the  field  after 
it  is  plowed  and  within  a  few  days  of  planting.  It  is  immediately 
harrowed  into  the  soil  in  order  not  to  subject  the  organisms 
to  sunlight  and  air-drying.  The  soil  should  be  obtained  from 
the  field  in  as  fresh  condition  as  possible.  While  being  held 
for  use  it  should  be  kept  out  of  the  sunlight  and  where  it  will 
not  dry  out.  While  this  method  has  given  excellent  and  fairly 
uniform  results,  so  far  as  inoculation  is  concerned,  it  is  rather 
expensive  where  soil  is  shipped  long  distances,  and  has  the 
added  disadvantage  of  possibly  introducing  weeds,  fungous 
diseases  and  insect  enemies.  The  New  Jersey  Station  has 
obtained  good  results  by  passing  water  through  an  inoculated 
soil  and  sprinkling  the  water  upon  the  land  it  is  desired 
to  inoculate. 

140.  Nitrifsnlng  and  Denitrifying  Organisms. — The  sources 
of  organic  nitrogen  in  the  soil  are:  (i)  the  nitrogen  compounds 

1  The  Department  of  Agriculture  at  Washington  is  now  experimenting  with 
a  method  of  distributing  liquid  cultures  in  glass  tubes,  thus  obviating  the 
drying  and   consequent   destruction   of   the   organisms. 

The  liquid  cultures  are  forwarded  in  hermetically  sealed  tubes  accompanied 
by  detailed  instructions  for  multiplying  and  applying  the  bacteria.  In  one  gallon 
of  clean,  boiled,  and  cooled  water  dissolve  three  teaspoonfuls  of  sugar  and  the 
contents  of  package  No.  1  (which  consists  of  72  grains  of  potassium  phosphate, 
monobasic,  and  three  grains  of  magnesium  sulphate).  Add  the  cultures,  package 
No.  2,  and  keep  in  a  warm  place.  After  24  hours  add  package  No.  3  (which 
contains  0.6  ounce  of  ammonium  phosphate)  and  allow  to  stand  for  another 
24  hours,  when  the  liquid  should  be  cloudy  on  account  of  the  myriads  of 
bacteria  it  contains.  It  is  now  ready  for  use.  Moisten  the  seed  with  this 
liquid;  dry,  and  sow  as  quickly  as  practicable.  If  preferred,  the  liquid  may 
be  sprinkled  on  a  portion  of  soil  and  this  scattered  over  the  land. 


LEGUMINOUS   FORx\GE   CROPS  I33 

formed  by  the  joint  activities  of  Bacillus  radicicola  and  le- 
guminous plants;  (2)  aerobic  and  anaerobic  nitrogen-fixing 
bacteria  living  in  the  soil  itself;  (3)  higher  plants  which  trans- 
form nitrate  or  ammonia  nitrogen,  v^hether  derived  from  fer- 
tilizer or  soil  sources,  into  organic  nitrogen;  and,  (4)  a  great 
variety  of  soil  bacteria  which  convert  nitrate  or  ammonia 
nitrogen  into  protein  substances.  This  organic  nitrogen  is 
made  available  as  plant  food  through  a  process  known  as 
nitrification/ 

The  steps  are  held  generally  to  be  two.  First,  the  organic 
nitrogen  is  changed  into  nitrous  acid  (HNO2),  which,  com- 
bining with  calcium  or  some  other  base  in  the  soil,  forms 
nitrites.  These  nitrites  are  then  changed  into  nitric  acid 
(HNO3),  which  in  like  manner  to  nitrous  acid  is  transformed 
into  nitrates — the  form  in  which  nitrogen  is  believed  to  be  ab- 
sorbed by  plants.  This  process  is  attributed  to  the  action  of 
bacteria.  The  first  form  has  been  given  the  name  of  nitro- 
somonas,  and  the  second  form  the  name  of  nitrobacter  by 
Winogradsky,  who  has  grown  pure  cultures  of  each.  Under 
certain  soil  conditions — such  as  a  lack  of  proper  aeration  of 
the  soil — either  the  organic  nitrogen  or  the  nitrates  of  the  soil 
may  be  decomposed  and  the  nitrogen  set  free.  This  process 
is  attributed  to  denitrifying  organisms.  Skilful  agriculture, 
therefore,  requires  that  soil  conditions  shall  be  provided  which 
will  assist  nitrification  at  the  proper  time,  prevent  it  at  other 
times,  and  prevent  denitrification  at  all  times. 

141.  Effect  of  Lime  on  Legumes.— It  has  been  abundantly 
proved  that  with  certain  soils  under  certain  conditions  the  ad- 
dition of  lime  may  greatly  increase  the  growth  of  certain 
leguminous  crops.  This  has  been  shown  to  be  true  for  clover 
at  the  Ohio  Station  and  for  alfalfa  at  the  Cornell  Station.  It 
has  long  been  held  that  lime  assists  the  nitrification  of  organic 

^The  term  nitrification  should  be  restricted  to  the  process  by  which  organic 
nitrogen  is  changed  into  nitric  acid,  and  should  not  be  applied  to  the  process 
by  which  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air  is  assimilated  by  plants. 


134  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

matter  by  reason  of  furnishing  a  base  for  the  nitrous  and  nitric 
acids  formed,  thus  preventing  the  soil  from  becoming  too  acid 
for  the  proper  growth  of  the  nitrifying  organisms.  The  Cornell 
Station  found  that  not  only  was  the  size  of  the  alfalfa  plants 
greatly  increased  where  lime  was  added,  but  that  the  water 
soluble  nitrates  were  also  greatly  increased. 

Assuming  that  an  increase  in  water  soluble  nitrogen  is  the 
cause  of  the  increase  in  the  growth  of  alfalfa — which  is  highly 
probable,  although  not  yet,  perhaps,  fully  demonstrated — the 
observations  above  reported  may  be  taken  as  indicating  that 
lime  does  assist  in  nitrification;  or,  since  it  has  been  demon- 
strated that  legumes  excrete  organic  nitrogen  into  the  soil,  it 
may  be  assumed  that  the  lime  furnishes  the  proper  conditions  for 
the  vigorous  development  of  the  tubercle-bacteria,  and  thus 
the  increase  in  the  water  soluble  nitrogen  is  a  result  and  not 
the  cause  of  the  increased  growth  of  alfalfa.  Whichever  may 
be  the  fact,  the  lime  asists  the  legume  in  some  manner  to  get  in 
a  comparatively  short  time  an  abundant  supply  of  nitrogen. 

142.  Value. — Leguminous  plants  are  of  vast  importance  to 
agriculture  and  hence  to  mankind.  The  different  ways  in  which 
they  are  valuable,  especially  the  leguminous  forage  crops,  may 
be  enumerated  as  follows: 

I.  They  help  to  balance  the  food  ration  of  man  and  of  do- 
mestic animals.  The  great  bulk  of  agricultural  productions, 
either  in  grain  or  roughage,  is  from  plants  belonging  to  the 
grass  family.  The  latter  produce  an  abundance  of  starch  and 
other  heat-forming  substances,  but  are  relatively  deficient  in 
protein  or  muscle-forming  foods.  The  leguminous  crops  produce 
in  the  whole  plant,  as  well  as  in  the  seed,  a  large  percentage  of 
protein;  hence  they  tend  to  correct,  when  used,  the  otherwise 
one-sided  ration.  It  is  desirable  to  feed  growing  cattle  clover, 
alfalfa,  or  cowpea  hay  with  the  grain  or  stover  of  maize,  for 
the  same  reasons  that  human  beings  eat  meat  with  potatoes. 
Too  much  clover  hay  or  too  much  meat  would  be  undesirable. 


LEGUMINOUS  FORAGE   CROPS 


135 


The  table  following  gives  the  average  of  American  analyses 
for  the  more  common  leguminous  forage  and  grain  crops.  The 
analyses  of  timothy  hay  and  of  maize  grain  are  given  for  com- 
parison. 

Analyses  of  Leguminous  Plants 


Num- 

Nitro- 

Name of  plant 

ber  of 

Water 

Ash 

Protein 

Crude 

gen- 

Fat 

an- 

Nx 6.25 

fiber 

free 

alyses 

extract 

Forage 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

Timothy 

68 

13.2 

4.4 

5.9 

29.0 

45.0 

2.5 

Alfalfa 

21 

8.4 

7.4 

14.3 

25.0 

42.7 

2.2 

Alsike  clover 

9 

9.7 

8.3 

12.8 

25.6 

40.7 

2.9 

Bur  clover 

8.9 

5.0 

13.7 

30.6 

38.2 

3.6 

Crimson   clover   . 

2 

8.0 

8.4 

15.6 

32.0 

34.3 

1.7 

Mammoth   clover 

4 

26.3 

5.8 

10.2 

22.4 

30.4 

4.9 

Red  clover 

38 

15.3 

6.2 

12.3 

24.8 

38.1 

3.3 

Sweet   clover 

^  . . . 

7.7 

17.2 

34.0 

38.2 

2.9 

White  clover 

7 

9.7 

8.3 

15.7 

24.1 

39.3 

2.9 

Hairy  vetch 

•• 

11.9 

5.8 

23.0 

19.7 

36.6 

3.0 

Kidney  vetch 

.. 

1... 

13.3 

18.4 

14.9 

48.9 

3.5 

Spring  vetch 

11.1 

7.1 

16.0 

26.1 

37.3 

2.4 

Soy  bean 

6.5 

7.9 

14.1 

20.4 

45.2 

5.9 

Velvet  bean 

1  ... 

7.2 

14.8 

40.3 

36.4 

1.3 

Cowpea 

8 

10.7 

7.5 

16.6 

20.1 

42.2 

2.9 

Japan  clover 

.. 

9.1 

4.1 

13.7 

21.6 

47.5 

4.0 

Field  pea     . 

•• 

^  . . . 

11.3 

26.7 

18.1 

40.7 

3.2 

Grain 

Maize 

208 

10.9 

1.5 

10.5 

2.1 

69.6 

5.4 

Field  bean 

15.0 

3.1 

20.4 

3.2 

56.7 

1.6 

Soy  bean     . 

8 

10.8 

4.7 

34.0 

4.8 

28.8 

16.9 

Cowpea 

5 

14.8 

3.2 

20.8 

4.1 

55.7 

1.4 

Peanut 

112 

7.8 

2.6 

27.2 

3.9 

13.2 

45.3 

^  Water-free  substance. 

2  This  average  includes  6  foreign  analyses. 


136 


THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


2.  A  ton  of  clover,  alfalfa,  or  cowpea  hay  contains  more 
nitrogen  than  does  a  ton  of  timothy  hay,  maize  fodder,  or  a 
ton  of  the  grain  of  maize  or  oats.  Nitrogen  being  the  most 
expensive  of  the  commercial  fertilizing  elements,  manure  pro- 
duced from  legumes  is  correspondingly  more  valuable  than  that 
produced  from  foods  of  the  grass  family.  The  table  following 
shows  the  percentages  of  the  essential  fertilizer  ingredients  in 
legumes  as  compared  with  timothy  hay,  wheat  straw,  and  maize 
grain. 

Table  Showing  Fertilizer  Ingredients 


Name    of    plant 

Ash 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric 
acid 

Potash 

Forage 

Timothy 

4.93 

1.26 

.53 

.90 

Red  clover           .... 

6.93 

2.07 

.38 

2.20 

Crimson  clover 

7.70 

2.05 

.40 

1.31 

Alsike  clover      .... 

11.11 

2.34 

.67 

2.23 

Alfalfa        

7.07 

2.19 

.51 

1.68 

Soy  bean   (whole  plant)    . 

6.47 

2.32 

.67 

1.08 

Cowpea   (whole  plant) 

8.40 

1.95 

.52 

1.47 

Wheat  straw       .... 

3.81 

.59 

.12 

.51 

Grain 

Maize  grain         .... 

1.53 

1.82 

.70 

.40 

Soy  beans            .... 

4.99 

5.30 

1.87 

1.99 

Field  pea  meal 

2.68 

3.08 

.82 

.99   - 

Peanut    (kernels) 

3.20 

4.51 

1.24 

1.27 

3.  Generally  speaking,  leguminous  crops  leave  in  and  on  the 
soil  a  larger  quantity  of  vegetation  than  do  the  cereal  crops. 
This  organic  matter  contains  a  relatively  larger  quantity  of 
nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  which  become  available 
to  the  plant  with  the  decay  of  the  vegetation.  The  land  is 
thus  in  a  more  suitable  condition  to  grow  a  succeeding  crop, 
particularly  a  cereal  crop,  than  if  the  leguminous  crop  had  not 


LEGUMINOUS  FORAGE   CROPS  1 37 

been  grown.  Grass  crops  also  leave  a  considerable  quantity 
of  vegetation  behind  them,  sometimes  a  greater  quantity  than 
red  clover,  for  example,  but  usually  it  is  not  so  rich  in  nitrogen, 
phosphorus,  and  potassium. 

The  deeper  root  habits  of  most  leguminous  plants  not  only 
make  it  possible  for  them  to  make  use  of  fertility  at  lower 
depths  but  thus,  possibly  by  leaving  these  elements  near  the 
surface,  to  make  them  available  to  shallower  rooted  plants. 
This,  however,  has  not  been  demonstrated  experimentally,  and 
a  critical  study  of  the  root  habits  of  leguminous  plants  leads 
to  the  belief  that  this  quality  in  them  has  been  overestimated. 

(147) 
4.    The  so-called  virgin  fertility  of  a  soil  is  largely  due  to 

the  nitrogen  combined  in  organic  matter.  While  this  fertility 
has,  doubtless  in  many  instances,  been  collecting  through  count- 
less ages,  yet  due  to  denitrification  and  the  leaching  of  nitrates, 
the  balance  of  available  nitrogen  at  any  time  is  not  large,  and 
by  certain  systems  of  cropping  it  can  be  easily  brought  to  such 
a  point  as  to  make  the  soil  unproductive.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  necessary  available  nitrogen  can  be  readily,  although  not 
necessarily,  economically  restored.^  Leguminous  forage  crops 
furnish  the  agency  through  which  the  necessary  available 
nitrogen  may  be  in  a  measure  maintained,  and  frequently  are 
the  most  economical  means  of  doing  it,  since  they  are  capable 
of  securing  their  nitrogen  supply  from  the  free  nitrogen  which 
constitutes  four-fifths  of  the  atmosphere.  What  proportion  of 
the  nitrogen  found  in  the  leguminous  plants  comes  ordinarily 
from  nitrates  already  in  the  soil,  and  what  proportion  comes 
from  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air  through  the  aid  of  tubercle- 
bacteria,  has  not  been  fully  determined.     The  indications  are 

1  The  algebraic  sum  of  the  gains  and  losses  of  nitrogen  which  occur  in 
all  soils  is  a  plus  quantity  in  untilled  soils  and  a  minus  quantity  in  soils 
constantly  cultivated.  In  the  latter  case,  however,  the  minus  quantity  may 
be  converted  into  a  plus  quantity  by  proper  methods  of  fertilization  and 
crop   rotation. 


l^'6  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

that  the  poorer  the  soil  is  in  nitrates — and  hence  the  greater 
the  need  of  soil  and  plant  for  nitrogen — the  greater  the  supply 
obtained  from  the  atmosphere,     (132) 

5.  The  organic  matter  left  in  the  soil  improves  the  physical 
condition  of  most  soils.  Probably  the  most  important  physical 
property  is  that  with  reference  to  the  retention  and  passage 
of  water  in  the  soil.  The  decay  of  deep-growing  tap  roots  of 
red  clover  and  alfalfa  in  the  sub-soil  may  assist  drainage  mate- 
rially by  offering  an  opening  for  the  passage  of  water.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  decay  of  large  amounts  of  vegetable  matter 
in  the  surface  soil  enables  the  water  to  enter  the  soil  more 
freely  rather  than  running  off  the  surface,  and  also  enables 
the  soil  to  hold  the  optimum  amount  of  water.  The  influence 
which  these  factors  may  have  on  the  time  that  must  elapse 
before  land  can  be  cultivated  after  heavy  rains,  and  on  the  num- 
ber of  days  in  the  year  that  it  is  possible  to  cultivate  the  land  is 
often  extremely  important. 

6.  The  introduction  of  leguminous  plants  has  offered  op- 
portunity for  a  better  system  of  rotation — not  alone  for  reasons 
just  stated,  but  because  it  brought  into  the  rotation  a  plant 
not  subject  to  the  same  insect  enemies  and  fungous  diseases  of 
cereals  and  grasses,  and  perhaps  for  other  reasons  not  well 
understood.  The  introduction  of  red  clover,  together  with  root 
crops,  resulting  in  the  Norfolk  system  of  rotation,  revolutionized 
the  agriculture  of  Great  Britain  and  had  a  profound  influence 
indirectly  upon  the  colonists  of  North  America.  "Red  clover 
has  contributed  even  more  to  the  progress  of  agriculture  than 
the  potato  itself,  and  has  had  no  inconsiderable  influence  on 
European  civilization.  Its  cultivation  has  led  to  an  increased 
production  of  stock  as  food  for  man,  and  in  this  way  has 
fostered  and  advanced  commerce,  industry,  and  science."  ^ 

143.  Collateral  Reading. — H.  W.  Conn:  Agricultural  Bacteriology,  pp 
76-108;   130-162.     Philadelphia:   P.  Blakiston's  Son  &  Co.,   1901. 

1  Stebler  and   Schroter:   The  Best   Forage   Plants,  p.   123. 


LEGUMINOUS   FOKAUE  CROPS  1 39 

A.  D.  Hall:  The  Soil,  pp.   161-186.     New  York:  E.  P.  Dutton  &  Co.,  1904. 

A.  D.  Hall:  The  Book  of  the  Rothamsted  Experiments,  pp.  1-14;  217-239. 
London:  John  Murray,    1905. 

Jared  G.  Smith:  Leguminous  Forage  Crops.  In  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Year- 
book   1897,   pp.   487-492. 

G.  T.  Moore:  Soil  Inoculation  for  Legumes.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of 
Plant   Industry  Bui.  No.  71    (1905),  p.  12. 

K.  F.  Kellerman  and  T.  R.  Robinson:  Inoculation  of  Legumes.  U.  S. 
Dept.   Agr.,  Tarmers'   Bui,  No.  240,   1906. 

H.  Garman:  Kentucky  Forage  Plants.  Kentucky  Station  Bui.  No.  98  (1902), 
pp.  4-13. 


VIII 


LEGUMINOUS   FORAGE   CROPS 

I.     CLOVERS 

144.  Relationships. — The  genus  Trifolium  (clovers)  is  closely 
related  to  Medicago  (alfalfa)  and  Melilotus  (sweet  clover)  in 
that  in  all  the  leaf  is  divided  into  three  leaflets.  In  the  case 
of  the  clovers,  however,  the  three  leaflets  arise  from  the  end 
of  the  leaf  stalk  or  petiole,  palmately  lohed,  while  in  the  other 
two  genera  the  lateral  leaflets  arise  from  the  sides  of  the  petiole 
some  distance  from  the  end,  pinnately  lohed.  The  Melilotus 
is  readily  distinguished  by  its  flowers  being  in  racemes,  while 
in  the  Medicago  the  coiled  or  curved  or  kidney-shaped  pod 
serves  to  distinguish  the  species  of  this  genus  from  the  clovers. 

145.  Number  and  Distribution  of  Species. — The  number  of 
species  belonging  to  the  genus  Trifolium  is  about  250,  variously 
estimated  from  150  to  290.  They  are  most  abundant  in  the 
North  Temperate  Zone.  About  65  species  are  known  in  North 
America,  the  greatest  number  being  found  native  to  the 
Western  states. 

List  of  Clovers  of  Economic  Importance^ 
Native 

SPECIES     GROWING     IN      THE     EASTERN      PART     OF     THE     UNITED     STATES 

Buffalo  clover,  Trifolium  reAexum  L. 

Running  buffalo  clover,   T.   stoloniferum  Muhl. 

Carolina  clover,   T.   carolinianuni  Michx. 

White  clover,  T.  repens  L. 

Southern  clover,   T.   amphianthum  T.  &  G. 

'^  Some  of  the  species  in  this  list  are  probably  of  no  economic  importance, 
but  are  included  because  they  have  been  tested  at  one  or  more  experi- 
ment stations. 

140 


LEGUMINOUS  FORAGE  CROPS  I4I 

SPECIES     GROWING     IN     THE     WESTERN     PART     OF     THE     UNITED     STATES 

T.  hegariense  Morie 

Mountain   red  clover,    T.   megacephalum   Nutt. 

T.  eriocephalum  Nutt. 

Long-stalked  clover,    T.   longipes  Nutt. 

Beckwith's  clover,    T.   beckwitliii  Brewer 

7".  itivolucratutn  Willd. 

T.  tridentatum  Lindl. 

Lowland  clover,   T.   microcephalum  Pursh. 

Western  clover,  T.  furcatutn  Lindl. 

Introduced  and  Foreign  Species 

Golden  clover:   yellow  hop-clover,   T.   agrarium  L, 

Low  hop  clover:  lesser  trefoil:  yellow  clover,   T.  procumbens  L. 

Least  hop  clover:  trefoil,  T.  dubium  Sibth. 

Yellow  suckling  clover:   slender  clover,   T.   Uliforme  L. 

Berseem:   Egyptian  clover:   Alexandrian  clover,    T.   alexandrinum   L. 

Rabbit-foot:   Hare's-foot:   Pussy:   Oldfield:   stone  clover,   T.   arvense  L. 

Alsike   or   Swedish   clover,    T.   Hybridum   L. 

Said  to  be  smaller  variety  of  alsike  with  white   haired   stems,    T.    elegans   L. 

Reversed  clover,   T.  resupinatum  L. 

Strawberry-headed  clover:   strawberry  clover,   T.  fragiferum  L. 

Knotted  clover:   soft  knotted  trefoil,   T.  striatum  L. 

Crimson  clover:  scarlet  clover,  T,  incarnatum  L. 

Red  clover,  T.  pratense  L. 

Mammoth  clover,  T.  pratense  perenne  Hort. 

Zigzag  clover,  T.  medium  L. 

Hungarian  clover,  T.  pannonicum  Jacq. 

II.     RED   CLOVER 

146.  Name. — Red  clover  (Trifolium  pratense  L.)  is  also 
known  as  common  clover,  June  clover,  meadow  clover,  broad- 
leafed  clover,  and  meadow  trefoil.  It  is  also  known  as  medium 
clover  or  medium  red  clover  to  distinguish  it  from  its  cultivated 
variety,  mammoth  clover  or  mammoth  red  clover. 

147.  Roots. — The  tap  roots  which  may  be  forked  into  two 
or  more  branches  have  been  found  extending  six  or  more  feet 
in  the  ground,  but  usually  they  do  not  extend  beyond  two  feet. 
The  secondary  roots  which  are  numerous  usually  arise  from 
the  upper  third  of  the  tap  root  and  occupy  the  surface  area 


142  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

of  the  soil.  When  the  plants  are  subject  to  heaving,  plants  may 
be  found  with  the  tap  root  broken  off  near  the  surface  of  the 
earth.    The  tap  root  is  doubtless  an  important  factor  in  enabling 

the  red  clover  to  withstand 
drought,  but  probably  the  im- 
portance of  red  clover  as  an  agent 
in  bringing  plant  food  from  the 
sub-soil  into  the  surface  soil  has 
been  overestimated,  since  by  far 
the  largest  root  area  is  to  be 
found  in  the  surface  soil. 

The  roots  of  red  clover  have 
an  interesting  habit  of  shortening 
and  thus  drawing  the  crown  of 
the  plant  down  into  the  soil. 
"This  change  protects  the  lower 
buds  from  the  scythe,  gives  the 
plant  a  firmer  hold  of  the  ground, 
and  prevents  uprooting  during 
winter."  ^  Under  greenhouse 
conditions   this   occurs   in   six  to 

Individual  plants  of  red  clover,  showing   eight  weeks  after  SproUting.     Un- 
root system:  a  one  week  from  planting;       1  Ti  J...  ,     ,  1 

*  two  weeks  from  planting  ^^r  like  conditions  tubcrcles  ap- 

pear upon  the  main  root  in  two 
weeks  and  upon  branches  in  four  weeks."  The  tubercles,  at  first 
spherical  and  later  becoming  pear-shaped  and  sometimes  com- 
pounded into  clusters,  are  about  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  length 
with  one-third  to  one-half  that  diameter. 

148.  Habit  of  Growth  above  Ground. — The  primary  stem 
always  remains  short  and  never  flowers,  but  bears  a  rosette  of 
leaves  by  reason  of  the  short  internodes.     From  the  axils  of 

1  Stabler  and  Schroter:  The  Best  Forage  Plants,  p.  127. 

2  Laura  Gano:  The  True  Clovers;  thesis,  Master  of  Science  in  Agriculture, 
Cornell  University,  p.   147,   1906. 


LEGUMINOUS   FORAGE   CROPS  I43 

these  leaves  arise  commonly  8  to  10,  sometimes  15  to  20,  more 
or  less  erect  leafy  branches,  with  a  flower  head  at  their  apex. 
These  branches  may  branch  and  re-branch,  each  branch  ter- 
minating in  a  flower  head  and  thus  making  a  bushy,  leafy 
plant  with  a  large  proportion  of  leaves  and  small  stems. 
Dietrich  gives  the  relative  proportion  of  parts  when  in  full 
hloom  as:  leaflets  19,  leaf-stalks  11,  heads  11,  and  stems  59 
per  cent. 

The  height  and  erectness  of  the  stems  depend  upon  the 
nature  of  the  soil,  the  usual  height  under  proper  cultural  con- 
ditions varying  from  18  to  30  inches.  In  case  the  stems  become 
procumbent,  the  lowest  nodes — usually  not  more  than  two — 
produce  roots,  thus  giving  red  clover  a  slightly  creeping  habit. 
Compared  with  alsike,  white  clover,  or  alfalfa,  the  leaflets  are 
large,  1.25  to  2  inches  long;  0.75  to  i  inch  wide,  and  variable 
in  form,  and  possess  more  or  less  prominent  v-shaped  white 
markings.  The  leaf-stalk  varies  from  one  to  six  or  more  inches 
in  length. 

All  the  vegetative  portions  are  covered  with  a  hairy  down 
quite  variable  in  amount  under  different  conditions  of  growth — 
the  younger  the  growth,  the  thicker  and  more  prominent  the 
hairs.  The  younger  parts  are  also  tender  and  succulent  while 
the  older  portions  become  woody  with  a  pithy  interior.  When 
the  stems  are  cut,  the  remaining  portion  dies  except  the  short 
bud-bearing  internodes  at  the  base,  which  soon  develop  and 
form  new  branches.  When  cut  for  seed,  the  whole  stem  usually 
dies.  The  stipules,  one  inch  in  length  and  attached  to  the 
petiole,  have  prominent  parallel  veins.  The  free  triangular 
apex  is  prolonged  into  an  awn-like  process. 

149.  Inflorescence. — The  inflorescence  consists  of  round  to 
elongated  oval,  single,  sometimes  forked  spikes,  typically  one 
to  one  and  a  half  inches  long,  containing  from  100  to  200  dark 
to  light  pink,  sometimes  white,  sessile  flowers.  The  first  crop 
of  red  clover  blooms  throughout  the  North  Atlantic  and  North 


144  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

Central  states  during  June,  and  the  second  crop  during  August. 
The  flowers  bloom  progressively  from  the  lower  to  the  upper 
parts  of  the  head,  and  for  a  single  head  occupy  four  to  ten 
days.     Hopkins  estimates  that  a  field  will  remain  in  bloom  from 

#15  to  30  days  during  the  second  crop.     The 
^k        stage  of  full  bloom  is  therefore  a  rather  un- 
^        certain  point. 

When  the  flowers  dry  they  easily  break  off 

Red  clover  capsule  on    ,  .,.,.,  ,  •      ,    ,  ,  , 

the  left;  single  seed   ^^Y  reasou  of  their  brittle  pedicel,  but  the  calyx 
on  the  right.    En-   and  the   withered   corolla   are   persistent.      In 

larged  four  times.  ,  1  1  1         1  •  1 

damp  weather  these  absorb  moisture  and 
become  spongy,  making  threshing  or  hulling  quite  difficult.  The 
pod  is  a  one-seeded  capsule  and  differs  from  that  of  other 
clovers  or  other  leguminous  plants  in  that  it  is  not  a  legume 
but  is  orbicular,  opening  transversely,  thus  dividing  the  pod 
into  an  upper  smooth,  shiny,  thin-walled  cap  and  a  lower 
small  thin-walled  box  which  readily  tears  and  allows  the  seed 
to  escape. 

150.  Description  of  Seed. — Viewed  in  outline  from  its  two 
longest  diameters  the  seed  is  oval,  with  the  raphe  or  radicle 
forming  a  distinct  projection.  Viewed  from  its  two  smallest 
diameters  the  seed  is  flattened.  Sizes  vary  greatly:  the  average 
length  is  0.07  inch;  width  0.05  to  0.06  inch;  thickness  0.03  to 
0.04  inch.  The  average  number  of  seeds  to  the  pound  is  about 
375,000,  from  which  there  may  be  a  variation  of  50  per  cent, 
either  way.  The  legal  weight  of  a  bushel  in  nearly  all  states 
and  Canada  is  60  pounds. 

The  seeds  may  be  uniformly  yellow,  or  uniformly  purple,  or 
variegated  with  yellow,  lavender,  or  violet  and  purple.  Unripe 
seeds  are  yellowish  green.  With  age  the  color  is  said  to  change 
to  drab,  afterward  passing  into  red.  The  dark  seeds,  which  are 
probably  the  more  thoroughly  ripened,  are  likely  to  be  "hard" 
or  dormant. 


LEGUMINOUS  FORAGE   CROPS  I45 

151.  Impurities  and  Adulterations. — Red  clover  is  now  rarely 
adulterated.  In  Europe  colored  grains  of  sandstone  were  not 
uncommonly  used.  Large  quantities  of  black  medic  or  yellow 
trefoil  seeds  have  been  imported  into  this  country  in  recent 
years   and   have    been    mixed    with    red    clover    and    alfalfa — 


Red  clover  seed  and  a  few  of  its  impurities:  a  Dodder  {Cuscuta  arvensts);  b  black  medic 
(Medicago  lupuHna);  c  red  clover  {hHfolium  pra'.ense)\  d  broad-leaved  plantain  {.Plan- 
tago  rugelit);  e  rib-grass  {Plantago  lanceolota,.  Much  enlarged  (after  Pieters). 

probably  more  commonly  with  the  latter.  (236)  The  seeds 
of  sweet  clover  sometimes,  although  rarely,  occur,  (250)  The 
mixture  of  other  but  useful  seeds — such  as  timothy  and  alsike 
clover — is  not  uncommon.  This  is  frequently  due  to  the  crops 
growing  together,  but  they  may  also  be  artificially  mixed  on 
account  of  the  lower  cost  of  the  seed. 

The  Delaware  Station  found  the  average  of  the  pure  seed 
in  samples  examined  to  be  93  per  cent.,  with  no  sample  below 
90  per  cent.^  Of  28  samples  examined  by  the  Ohio  Station, 
only  one  was  below  93  per  cent.^  The  standard  of  purity  should 
not  be  less  than  98  per  cent.  The  seeds  occurring  most  fre- 
quently and  in  greatest  number  in  clover  seed  were  found  by 
the  Nevada,'  Ohio,'  and  the  Iowa*  stations,  in  70,  28,  and  255 
samples  respectively,  to  be  as  follows: 

Rugel's  plantain,  Plantago  rngelii  Decne 
Rib-grass,  P.   lanceolata  L. 
Large  bracted  plantain,  P.  aristata  Michx. 
Lady's  thumb.  Polygonum  persicaria  L. 

1  Delaware   Sta.   Bui.  No.   5    (1899). 

2  Ohio  Sta.  Bui.  No.   142   (1903). 
'Nevada  Sta.  Bui.  No.  47   (1900). 
*Iowa   Sta.   Bui.   No.   88   (1907),  p.  27. 


146  THE   FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

Timothy,  Phleum  pratense  L. 

Bitter  dock,  Rumex  obtusifolia  L. 

Curled  dock,  R.  crispus  L. 

Sheep  sorrel,  R.  acetosella  L. 

I-'ox  tail  grass,  Chaetochloa  verticillata  (L.)   Scribn. 

Yellow  fox  tail,  Ch.   glauca    (L.)    Scribn. 

Green  fox  tail,  Ch.  viridis  (L.)   Scribn. 

Ragweed,  Ambrosia  artemisiae folia   L. 

Lamb's  quarters,  Chenopodium  album  L. 

Witch  grass,  Panicum  co pillar e  L. 

Crab-grass,  P.  sanguinale  L. 

Rough  pigweed,  Amaranthus  retroHexus  L. 

Tumbleweed,  Am.  graecizans  L. 

Alsike  clover,  Trifolium  hybridum  L. 

White  clover,   T.  repens  L, 

Self  heal.  Prunella  vulgaris  L. 

Along  with  these  should  be  mentioned  black  medic  and 
Canada  thistle,  the  latter  being  reported  by  the  Canadian 
Department  of  Agriculture  to  have  been  found  in  23  per  cent, 
of  163  samples. 

152.  Germination  and  Viability.— Haberlandt  gives  the  tem- 
perature for  the  germination  of  red  clover  as  follows:  min- 
imum 34°,  optimum  86°,  and  maximum  99°  F.  With  the 
optimum  temperature  and  moisture  seeds  will  begin  to  sprout 
vigorously  in  two  to  four  days.  The  standard  of  germination 
is  90  per  cent.  The  Ohio  Station  found  a  range  of  32  to  99 
per  cent,  of  germination  in  28  samples  of  commercial  seed/ 
The  New  York  State  Station  found  the  highest  germination 
when  the  specific  gravity  was  between  1.25  and  1.30,  and  less 
when  either  above  or  below  this  specific  gravity.^ 

The  viability  of  clover  seed  has  not  been  definitely  deter- 
mined, but  with  our  present  knowledge  seed  that  is  over  three 
years  old  must  not  be  considered  safe  to  sow.  Beal  found  an 
average  germination  of  36  per  cent,  in  red  clover  seed  that  had 

iQhio  Sta.  Bui.  No.  142   (1903). 

2  New  York  State  Sta.  Bui.  No.  256   (1904). 


LEGUMINOUS  FORAGE  CROPS  1 47 

been  kept  with  care  in  corked  bottles  for  twelve  years/  Red 
clover  seed  is  not  greatly  subject  to  injury  during  storing  from 
vermin  or  insect  enemies,  and  consequently  is  deemed  by  some 
a  desirable  article  to  buy  and  store  when  prices  are  low. 

153.  Varieties. — Aside  from  mammoth  clover  there  are  no 
recognized  varieties  of  red  clover  cultivated  in  America.  (177) 
Red  clover  sometimes  has  white  flowers  when  it  has  been  re- 
ferred to  as  a  distinct  variety,  but  it  is  not  cultivated  as  such.' 
Red  clover  seed  obtained  from  various  American  and  European 
sources  has  been  tested  at  different  stations.  At  the  Maine 
Station  plants  from  American  and  south  European  seeds 
respectively  were  the  first  to  mature  and  gave  the  largest  yields. 
The  second  year's  growth  demonstrated  the  superior  hardiness 
and  vigor  of  plants  from  American  grown  seed.^  The  stems 
and  leaves  of  the  plants  grown  from  European  seed  were  char- 
acterized by  the  lack  of  hairiness,  which  was  taken  as  an  ex- 
planation of  the  greater  cleanliness  of  European  clover  hay  as 
compared  with  hay  from  American  clover  seed.  Seed  of  this 
type  of  clover  has  been  introduced  into  America  from  the 
"Black  Earth"  region,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Orel  govern- 
ment of  Russia,  under  the  name  of  hairless  Orel  clover.  In 
addition  to  the  dustlessness  of  its  hay,  this  plant  is  said  to  be 
more  erect,  leafier,  more  palatable,  and  to  mature  ten  days  or 
two  weeks  earlier  than  the  ordinary  American  red  clover.*  The 
North  Dakota  Station  found  the  plants  from  American  grown 
seed  to  be  superior  to  plants  from  foreign  seeds,  the  chief 
difference  being  in  the  production  of  plump  and  valuable 
seed. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  German  Agricultural  Society  tested 
seeds  from  15  different  sources,  and  after  two  years  it  was  found 

1  Soc.   Prom.  Agr.   Sci.,    1894. 

^Buckman:   Science  and  Practise  of  Farm  Cultivation. 

3  Maine   Sta.  Bui.  No.   113    (1905),  pp.   28-36. 

*  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bu.  PI.  Ind.  Bui.  No.  95   (1906). 


148  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

that  German  seed  was  superior,  with  Pennsylvania  and  Missouri 
seed  ranking  fourth  and  eleventh  respectively;  while  at  Kiel, 
Germany,  in  a  similar  experiment,  Burchard  found  that  clover 
from  American  seed  stood  the  winter  most  satisfactorily  and 
gave  the  largest  yields.  Nielsen  in  Denmark  found  at  the  end 
of  two  seasons  that  average  yields  of  red  clover  hay  gave 
Danish  seed  second  rank  with  98  per  cent.,  and  American  seed 
third  rank  with  95  per  cent.  Seed  of  red  clover  from  Chile  has 
been  introduced  into  Canada  with  good  results. 

154.  Distribution. — Red  clover  is  widely  diffused  through 
Europe.  It  is  successfully  cultivated  throughout  the  United 
States  and  Canada  east  of  the  one  hundredth  meridian  and 
north  of  the  Gulf  states.  In  the  region  of  the  Great  Lakes  it 
is  replaced  somewhat  by  alsike  clover  and  in  some  places, 
especially  in  certain  limestone  areas,  it  is  replaced  by  alfalfa. 
With  these  exceptions  red  clover  and  its  variety,  mammoth 
clover,  are  cultivated  for  hay  throughout  the  region  named, 
almost  to  the  exclusion  of  any  other  leguminous  forage  plant. 
It  is  also  cultivated  along  the  Pacific  coast  north  of  California. 

155.  Duration. — The  plant  is  described  by  some  as  a  biennial 
and  by  others  as  a  perennial  of  a  few  years'  duration.  The 
plant  varies  considerably  in  this  and  other  respects  in  different 
localities.  Assuming  favorable  conditions,  it  is  usual  when 
timothy  and  clover  are  sown  together  for  the  first  crop  to  be 
largely  clover,  the  second  year  (third  from  seed)  about  half 
and  half  timothy  and  clover,  and  the  third  year  largely  if  not 
quite  wholly  timothy.  If  timothy  is  sown  with  the  fall  grain, 
it  is  somewhat  more  predominant  from  the  first. 

156.  Adaptation. — Red  clover  is  adapted  to  a  temperate  cli- 
mate. It  will  not  stand  as  much  cold  and  moisture  as  alsike 
clover,  nor  as  much  heat  and  drought  as  alfalfa.  It  grows  on 
soils  of  all  states  of  fertility  except  the  poorest.  The  fertility  of 
the  soil  may  be  correctly  ascertained  by  the  appearance  of  the 


LEGUMINOUS  FORAGE  CROPS  I49 

clover  plant,  assuming  a  proper  quantity  of  rainfall.  It  is  not 
entirely  hardy  throughout  the  North  Atlantic  and  North  Central 
states.  It  is  not  infrequently  killed  by  being  heaved  out  in 
winter  or  spring  months,  especially  on  poorly  drained  land. 
It  is  not  well  adapted  to  stiff  clay  soils  as  timothy  and  other 
grasses  are.  It  is  best  adapted  to  well-drained  loams,  especially 
those  derived  from  limestone.  While  perhaps  the  yield  is  less 
upon  sandy  loams  than  upon  clay  loams,  there  is  less  danger 
from  winter  killing.  A  plentiful  supply  of  organic  matter  in 
the  soil  is  desirable  for  red  clover.  It  is  better  adapted  to  so- 
called  maize  lands  than  to  wheat  lands.     (C.  A.  115) 

157.  Fertilizers. — Soils  that  formerly  grew  clover,  but  upon 
which  its  cultivation  has  become  difficult,  can  usually  be 
restored  by  the  application  of  stable  manure  and  lime.  The 
stable  manure  makes  it  possible  to  secure  a  stand  by  reason 
of  the  organic  matter  furnishing  the  proper  moisture  conditions 
during  germination  and  early  growth,  and  the  lime  furnishes 
proper  conditions  for  an  abundant  growth  of  bacteria-bearing 
tubercles.  Where  a  suitable  rotation  is  practised,  the  stable 
manure  and  lime  may  best  be  applied  to  the  maize  crop  rather 
than  to  the  wheat  or  oat  crop  in  which  the  clover  is  seeded. 
(C.  A.  292)  Gypsum  or  sulphate  of  lime  at  the  rate  of  500 
pounds  to  the  acre,  applied  directly  to  the  clover  crop  during 
April  or  May,  sometimes  may  be  used  with  good  results  on 
lands  containing  plenty  of  organic  matter. 

Potash  fertilizers  and,  on  soils  relatively  low  in  phosphates, 
phosphoric  fertilizers  favor  the  growth  of  clovers.  Wood  ashes 
containing  both  lime  and  potash  are  frequently  used  with  good 
results.  In  mixed  herbage  the  influence  of  wood  ashes  in  in- 
creasing the  growth  of  clover  is  so  marked  that  it  has  given 
rise  to  the  saying  that  wood  ashes  contain  clover  seed. 

"It  appears,  therefore,  that,  on  the  soil  under  experiment,  the  presence  of 
an  abundant  supply  of  available  lime,  together  with  phosphorus  and  potassium, 
has    enabled    the    clover    plant    to    make    a    normal    growth    without    the    assist- 


150  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

ance  of  any  nitrogenous  fertilizer;  but  that,  in  the  absence  of  lime,  the 
clover  must  be  supplied  with  combined  nitrogen,  and  that  in  large  quantity,  as 
well  as  with  phosphorus  and   potassium."  ^ 

158.  Seeding. — While  red  clover  may  be  sown  at  any  time 
during  the  growing  season,  the  best  results  will  usually  be 
obtained  by  sowing  in  early  spring.  Good  judgment  is  required 
as  to  the  exact  time  of  sowing.  Much  depends  on  the  season. 
The  young  plants  may  be  killed  by  a  sharp  freeze  or  by  a  dry 
spell  of  a  few  days'  duration,  particularly  if  the  seeds  have 
not  been  well  covered.  In  general,  drought  is  more  to  be  feared 
than  freezing,  hence  early  sowing  is  usually  advisable.  For 
its  best  germination,  red  clover  seed  should  receive  a  light 
covering  of  soil.  Whether  this  will  take  place  by  natural 
means  or  can  best  be  secured  by  harrowing  or  rolling  will 
depend  upon  the  soil,  condition  of  the  seed-bed,  and  the  climatic 
conditions.  Sowing  on  a  late  snow  often  gives  good  results. 
The  seed  sink  into  the  liquid  mud  produced  by  the  melting 
snow.  Likewise,  a  sharp  freeze  that  has  produced  a  tessellated 
condition  of  soil  is  a  desirable  preparation,  since  the  seeds 
fall  between  the  crevices  and  the  soil,  subsequently  thawing, 
covers  them. 

When  seed  is  sown  late  on  fall  grain  the  ground  may  be 
harrowed  immediately  after  seeding  without  injury  to  the 
grain  and  to  the  benefit  of  the  clover.  This  is  especially  desira- 
ble on  heavy  clays  and  soils  lacking  in  organic  matter.  On 
loamy  soils  and  those  high  in  organic  matter  rolling  may  be 
sufficient.  With  spring  grain  the  seeding  may  be  accomplished 
by  means  of  the  seeder  attachment  to  the  grain  drill,  wjiich  will 
deposit  the  seed  either  before  or  behind  the  drills,  as  the  condi- 
tion of  the  ground  may  indicate  to  be  best.  Seeding  may  be 
done  after  the  grain  has  been  sown,  either  with  the  hand  seeder 
or  the  wheelbarrow  seeder.  Either  machine  may  also  be  used  in 
spring  seeding  of  clover  on  autumn  sown  grain.     (26) 

iQhio    Sta.    Bui.    No.    159    (1905),    p.    181. 


LEGUMINOUS  FORAGE  CROPS  I5I 

159.  Quantity  of  Seed. — The  amount  of  seed  to  sow  varies 
largely  with  the  locality  and  the  climatic  conditions.  The  rain- 
fall and  the  character  of  the  soil  in  particular — especially  the 
amount  of  organic  matter — are  probably  the  determinant 
factors.  Ten  pounds  to  the  acre  or  nearly  85  seeds  a  square 
foot  are  about  the  average  when  sown  alone ;  twice  this  quantity 
is  said  to  be  sown  in  some  localities.  When  sown  with  timothy 
or  other  grass,  six  to  eight  pounds  will  usually  suffice.  The 
Canada  Station  found  that  when  seeded  with  oats  or  barley 
10  pounds  produced  the  largest  yield. 

160.  Weeds. — The  list  of  seeds  given  in  the  paragraph  above 
indicates  the  weeds  which  not  uncommonly  occur  in  clover 
fields,  but  does  not  necessarily  indicate  the  most  common  or 
the  most  injurious  weeds.  The  most  common  weed  in  both 
timothy  and  clover  meadows  is  Erigeron  Sp.,  and  yet  the  seeds 
of  this  plant  have  not  been  reported  as  occurring  in  either 
clover  or  timothy  seed.  The  small  seeded  dodder,  of  which 
there  are  two  forms  (Ciisciita  epithymiim  Murr.  and  C.  trifolii 
Bab.),  and  the  large  seeded  or  field  dodder  (C  arvensis  Beyr.) 
occur  on  red  clover,  although  more  commonly  on  alfalfa — 
doubtless  because  the  latter  is  perennial.  (202)  Since  all 
forms  of  dodder  are  easily  eradicated  by  putting  the  land  in 
non-leguminous  crops,  it  is  not  greatly  to  be  feared  in  red 
clover.  Broom-rape  (Orobanche  minor  J.  E.  Smith),  though 
quite  a  familiar  plant  in  European  countries,  has  been  reported 
as  being  abundant  and  destructive  only  in  New  Jersey.^ 

161.  Clover  Sickness. — For  a  century  it  has  been  recognized 
in  Europe  to  be  difficult  to  raise  clover  in  short  rotations.  At 
Rothamsted,  England,  it  was  found  impossible  to  grow  clover 
oftener  than  once  in  four  years,  while  Stebler  states  that  on 
some  soils  in  Europe  six  and  even  nine  to  twelve  years  must 
elapse  before  a  good  crop  can  be  secured.    Though  in  America 

»  Torr.  Bot.  Club  Bui.  No.  25   (1898),  pp.  395-7. 


152  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

the  complaint  that  land  does  not  grow  clover  as  readily  as 
formerly  is  not  uncommon,  the  necessity  for  a  lapse  of  years 
between  crops  has  not  been  clearly  recognized.  The  causes 
for  this  condition  are  not  understood.  The  causes  which  may 
be  ascribed  for  the  failure  of  clover  are  as  follows:  (i)  fungous 
diseases;  (2)  insect  enemies;  (3)  lack  or  exhaustion  of  one  or 
more  essential  elements,  particularly  potash;  (4)  unfavorable 
physical  properties  of  the  soil  and  sub-soil,  particularly  the 
latter;  (5)  acidity  of  the  soil;  (6)  lack  of  the  tubercle-forming 
and  nitrogen-gathering  bacteria.  It  is  probable  that  the  causes 
mentioned  have  been  operative  at  different  times  and  places  in 
preventing  the  growth  of  clover. 

162.  Fungous  Diseases. — Gursow  studied  the  "clover-sick" 
plants  at  Rothamsted  in  1901  and  identified  a  fungus  {Pesiza 
cihoroides  Fries,  Sclerotinia  ciboroides  Rehm.)  which  was  suf- 
ficient to  destroy  the  plant  in  the  manner  in  which  most  of  the 
clover  was  affected  throughout  the  clover-sick  region.  This 
fungus  has  long  been  known  to  do  considerable  damage  in 
northern  Germany.  Alfalfa,  white  clover,  and  other  leguminous 
species  are  affected  by  it.  Gursow  states  that  in  the  earlier 
stages  of  the  disease,  when  the  dark  spots  first  occur  on  the 
leaf,  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  would  modify  if  not 
check  the  disease.^ 

In  Tennessee,  where  the  failure  of  red  clover  to  grow  has 
become  pronounced,  an  anthracrtose  (Colletotrichuin  trifolii 
Bain)  has  been  found  attacking  both  red  clover  and  alfalfa, 
but  to  which  alsike  clover  appears  to  be  immune.  It  is  believed 
to  be  the  most  serious  plant  disease  occurring  in  that  state. 
While  the  plant  may  succumb  to  the  disease  at  any  time,  the 
most  critical  periods  appear  to  be  when  the  seedlings  encounter 
the  first  prolonged  spells  of  summer  and  again  when  the  plant 
ripens  its  seed.^ 

ijour.  Roy.  Agr.  Soc.  Eng.  No.  64  (1903),  pp.  376-91. 
2  Journal  of  Mycology,   12   (Sept.,   1906),  pp.   192-3. 


LEGUMINOUS  FORAGE  CROPS  153 

Among  the  numerous  fungi  attacking  the  clovers  the  fol- 
lowing may  be  mentioned  as  being  of  more  or  less  economic 
importance : 

Powdery  mildew,  Erysiphe  polygoni  D.  C. 
Clover  rust,   Uromyces  trifolii  Hedw. 
Downy  mildew,  Peronospora  trifoliorum  De  Bary. 
Leaf  spot,  Phyllachora  trifolii  (Pers.)    Fckl. 
Root  fungus,  Rhizoctonia  violacea  Tul. 
Damping  off,  Pythium  debaryanum   Hesse. 
Leaf  spot,  Pseudopeziza  trifolii  Bernh. 
Stem  rot,  Sclerotinia  trifoliorum  Eriks. 

163.  Insect  Enemies. — More  than  80  insects  in  the  United 
States  and  a  much  larger  number  in  European  countries  are 
known  to  do  more  or  less  damage  to  red  clover.  Wire  worms 
(C.  A.  328),  cutworms  (C.  A.  329),  and  white  grubs  (C.  A. 
330),  being  omnivorous  feeders,  may  do  serious  injury  to  red 
clover,  as  may  also  blister  beetles,  locusts  and  leaf  hoppers. 
None  of  them,  however,  can  be  considered  specifically  clover 
insects. 

The  most  injurious  insects  confined  to  red  clover  and  other 
closely  allied  legumes  are: 

The  clover  root  borer,  Hylastes  trifolii  Mull. 

The  clover  leaf  weevil,  Phytonomus  punctatus  Fab. 

The  clover  seed  midge,  Cecidomyia  leguminicola  Lint. 

The  clover  root  borer  is  a  small  brown  or  black  beetle  one-eighth  inch  long, 
which  lays  its  eggs  in  the  crown  of  the  plants  in  spring.  These  hatch  in 
about  a  week,  and  the  larvae  burrow  into  and  destroy  the  roots.  The  larvae 
must  find  sustenance  in  the  plant  or  perish.  If,  therefore,  the  clover  is 
plowed  before  the  larvae  are  old  enough  to  pupate — say  between  June  15  and 
July  1,  immediately  after  cutting  the  first  crop — they  will  be  destroyed.  In 
some  sections  a  crop  of  buckwheat  could  be  obtained.  The  beetle  is  single 
brooded.  , 

The  clover  leaf  weevil  is  a  large  brownish  and  yellowish  snout  beetle  0.04 
inch  long.  Adults  and  larvae  feed  upon  the  leaves  of  clover,  the  larvae 
mostly  in  May  and  the  beetles  in  July  and  August.  A  second  brood  of  larvae 
appears  in  September:  they  pupate  in  October,  emerge  as  beetles  in  November, 
and  hibernate  when  quite  small  within  the  clover  stem.  Aside  from  a  rota- 
tion of  crops  there  is  no  practicable  remedy.     Fortunately,  however,  it  is  s«b- 


154 


THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


ject    to    a    fungoas    disease    (Entomophthora    sphaerospcrma    Fresu.)    which    is 
effective   in    holding   it   in   check. 

The  clover  midge,  which  is  closely  allied  to  the  Hessian  fly  (C.  A.  152), 
lays  its  eggs  in  the  flower  heads.  The  eggs  hatch  into  yellow  or  orange 
maggots  and  later  do  damage  by  living  within  the  developing  seeds.  There 
are  sometimes  two  broods  produced  in  a  season.  Early  cutting  of  the  first 
crop  is  recommended. 

164.  Harvesting  Hay. — Red  clover  produces  two  crops- an- 
nually. The  second  crop  is  quite  variable,  depending  on  the 
season,  the  rainfall  being  the  controlling  element.  Since  fre- 
quently the  second  crop  does  not  pay  for  cutting,  it  is  desirable 
to  be  able  to  pasture  the  aftermath  of  clover  meadows.  In 
some  localities  the  second  crop  is  considered  with  disfavor, 
except  as  a  seed  crop;  in  others  it  is  used  with  good  results. 
Probably  the  second  crop  is  usually  cut  when  too  ripe,  reducing 
both  palatability  and  digestibility,  and  by  reason  of  the  contained 
seed  causing  "slobbers"  or  other  unfavorable  effects. 

At  the  Illinois,  Pennsylvania,  and  Connecticut  stations,  the 
largest  yields  of  dry  matter  and  protein  were  obtained  when  the 
heads  were  in  full  bloom  or  just  past  that  stage.  There  was  a 
material  increase  in  crude  fiber  as  the  plant  ripened.^  From  all 
the  evidence  at  hand,  the  best  time  to  cut  red  clover  appears  to 
be  when  about  one-third  the  heads  have  begun  to  turn  brown. 

(36) 

Clover  is  more  difficult  to  cure  than  timothy  or  the  grasses 
generally,  because  (i)  in  the  first  crop  as  favorable  weather 
for  curing  does  not  exist;  (2)  the  plant  is  more  succulent, 
contains  a  higher  percentage  of  water;  (3)  when  placed  in  piles 
it  absorbs  the  rain  more  readily;  and  (4)  the  leaflets  and  flower 
heads  are  more  easily  broken  off  in  handling  than  the  leaf 
blades  and  spikelets  of  grasses.  Moreover,  clover  hay  is  more 
likely  to  become  dusty  when  rained  upon  or  when  improperly 
cured  than  in  the  case  of  grasses.  The  greatest  care  and  skill, 
therefore,   are   required   to   cure   clover   properly.      (37)      No 

1  Illinois  Sta.  Bui.  No.  5   (1889). 


LEGUMINOUS  FORAGE  CROPS  1 55 

Specific  directions  for  curing  clover  can  be  laid  down,  but 
recognizing  the  character  of  the  plant  and  the  sources  of  de- 
terioration as  stated  under  37,  an  attempt  should  be  made 
to  obtain  the  best  possible  product  at  the  least  cost. 

165.  Harvesting  Seed. — The  most  abundant  seed  is  obtained 
from  plants  that  do  not  grow  so  large  as  to  be  blown  down  or 
become  decumbent  on  account  of  their  great  weight.  Thin 
dry  soil  is  therefore  most  suitable  to  a  seed  crop.  Throughout 
the  North  Atlantic  and  North  Central  states  only  the  second 
crop  is  cut  for  seed,  since  the  first  crop  seeds  less  abundantly 
than  the  second.  Two  reasons  for  this  have  been  offered. 
First,  since  the  second  crop  is  not  so  luxuriant  as  the  first,  it 
is  less  likely  to  fall  down  from  wind  or  otherwise;  and  second, 
the  first  crop  is  usually  harvested  before  bumblebees  become 
abundant.  The  writer  once  had  a  late  blooming  first  crop  care- 
fully examined,  bumblebees  having  by  that  time  become  com- 
mon, and  found  an  abundance  of  seed. 

The  crop  should  be 
cut  when  the  flower 
heads  are  in  the  main 
brown  or  black  and 
the  seeds  mostly  hard. 
There  will  usually  be 
some  late  flowering 
heads  that  will  con- 
tain   soft    or    leathery   '^  Mowing-machine  with  windrowing  attachment;   n^y 

,  T  r     1  »  slso  be  used  as  a  buncher  when  harvesting 

seeds.         If     harvested  clover  or  alfalfa  for  seed 

too    early    the    seeds 

are  likely  to  be  immature  and  the  yield  small.     If  allowed  to 

stand  too  long,   new  shoots   will  be  thrown   up  bearing   fresh 

flowers,  which  will   retard  the  drying  and  interfere  with  the 

hulling. 

The  crop  may  be  cut  with  an  ordinary  mowing-machine  and 
afterward  put  in   bunches   with   barley   forks,  or   when  damp 


156  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

with  Spring  tooth  hay  rake.  Attachments  to  mowing-machines 
known  as  clover  bunchers  are  now  made  and  commonly  used. 
The  self-rake  reaping  machine  is  also  used.  (C.  A.  163)  With 
the  latter  the  clover  can  be  cut  higher,  making  less  material 
to  handle  and  leaving  a  great  stubble,  and  hence  more  organic 
matter  to  be  plowed  under.  The  clover  buncher  is  less  ex- 
pensive and  when  clover  is  down  may  secure  more  seed.  The 
clover  is  dried  in  small  piles  and  where  the  weather  is  moist 
must  be  turned  to  keep  seed  from  sprouting.  On  account  of 
the  ease  with  which  flowers  break  off,  the  less  the  clover  is 
handled  the  less  the  loss  of  seed.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
alternate  wetting  and  drying  facilitates  the  hulling.  From  three 
to  five  days  are  required  to  cure  for  hulling,  but  two  or  more 
weeks  may  be  allowed  without  material  injury  under  suitable 
weather  conditions.  The  quantity  of  seed  varies  greatly.  Fre- 
quently only  half  a  bushel,  ordinarily  two  to  five  bushels,  oc- 
casionally eight  to  ten  bushels  are  obtained. 

166.  Clover  Hullers. — Clover  hullers  differ  from  threshing 
machines  in  having  an  additional  cylinder  for  hulling  the  clover 
seed  and  in  the  adjustment  of  the  devices  for  cleaning  the  seed. 


Sectional  view  of  clover  huller.    Threshing  cylinder  above;  hulling  cylinder  below, 
covered  with  hardened  steel  rasp 

The  clover  first  passes  an  ordinary  threshing  cylinder,  which 
removes  the  heads  from  the  stems  and  to  a  small  extent  hulls 
the  seeds.  The  stems  pass  to  the  stacker  while  the  heads,  hulled 
seed,  and  chaff  pass  through  riddles  and  are  conveyed  to  the 
hulling  cylinder,  which  removes  the  seeds  from  the  pods  and 


LKGUMlNOrS    l-ORAtlK    CROPS 


157 


surrounding  flower  parts,  after  which  the  seed  is  cleaned,  re- 
cleaned  and  conveyed  into  bags. 

The  huller  cylinder  and  its  concaves  may  be  fitted  with  teeth 
having  a  wide-fluted  blade,  or  with  steel  brads  driven  into  wood 
through  holes  in  the  steel  covering,  or  may  be  covered  with 
a  corrugated  steel  rasp.  The  ordinary  grain  thresher  may  be 
used     by     substi- 


tuting concaves 
containing  an  in- 
creased number 
of  rows  of  spe- 
cial corrugated 
teeth  and  by  us- 
ing sieves  suited 
to  cleaning  the 
clover  seed.  The 
purpose    in    each 


Diagrammatic  view  of  portion  of  clover  huller  showing 
hulling  cylinder  with  spikes 


case   is   to   get   a  ^J^J^ 


large    amount   of  ^j^J^^)^^^ 
rubbing      surface 

in     order     to     re-         Hardened  steel  rasp  for  covering  clover  hulling  cylinder 

move     the      seed    from  its  spongy  covering. 

There  are  at  least  ten  manufacturers  of  clover  hullers  in 
the  United  States.  The  size  of  the  hulling  cylinder  varies  from 
28  to  42  inches  in  length.  Machines  are  made  with  and  without 
self-feeders;  with  web  or  wind  stackers.  The  smaller  sizes 
may  be  operated  by  horse  power;  the  larger  sizes  are  for  steam 
power  only.  One  hundred  or  more  bushels  of  seed  may  be 
hulled  in  ten  hours;  20  to  40  bushels  are  common. 


167.  Value. — Red  clover  is  adapted  for  hay,  which  has,  when 
well  cured,  a  high  feeding  value  for  growing  animals,  especially 
sheep,  and  for  milch  cows.  The  nitrogenous  character  of  the 
food  is  less  needed  by  mature  work  animals,  and  is  generally 
not  advised  for  horses,  because  of  its  liability  to  be  dusty.     In 


158  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

the  markets,  therefore,  hay  containing  clover,  unless  of  fancy 
grade,  usually  sells  for  less  than  pure  timothy  hay.  Red  clover 
does  not  make  dense  sod,  and  does  not  stand  pasturing  as  well 
as  alsike  or  white  clover,  or  the  grasses.  Moreover,  clover 
when  pastured  while  the  dew  is  on  is  liable  to  cause  the  death 
of  cattle  through  bloating. 

Red  clover  has  a  greater  value  in  restoring  the  fertility  of 
the  soil  than  alsike  clover,  probably  because  of  the  greater 
amount  of  organic  matter  left  in  and  on  the  soil,  and  because 
of  the  greater  depth  of  its  tap  root.  On  account  of  being  suited 
to  grow  readily  with  grain  crops  and  with  grasses  it  is  better 
adapted  to  a  rotation  of  crops  than  alfalfa. 

168.  Fertilizing  Constituents  per  Acre. — The  Storrs  Station 
found  a  crop  of  red  clover  in  full  bloom,  yielding  4,900  pounds 
of  dry  matter  per  acre,  to  contain  138  pounds  of  nitrogen,  152 
pounds  of  potash,  and  32  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid.  The  roots 
and  stubble  contained,  in  addition,  44  pounds  of  nitrogen,  32 
pounds  of  potash  and  13.  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid.  A  ton  of 
rich  stable  manure  may  contain  10  pounds  each  of  nitrogen  and 
phosphoric  acid,  and  8  pounds  of  potash.^ 

169.  Feeding  Value  Compared  with  Timothy. — The  total 
amount  of  digestible  nutrients  in  100  pounds  of  clover  hay  is 
almost  identical  with  that  of  100  pounds  of  timothy  hay.  The 
Pennsylvania  Station  has  shown  that  the  fuel  value — i.e.,  the 
total  energy  which  can  be  set  free  in  the  body  of  a  steer — 
is  nearly  the  same  with  both  kinds  of  hay.  The  net  available 
energy,  however,  of  clover  hay  when  fed  to  a  steer  as  a  main- 
tenance ration  was  found  to  be  considerably  less  than  that  of 
timothy  hay.^  (12)  On  the  other  hand,  clover  hay  furnishes 
more  than  three  times  as  large  a  proportion  of  proteids  as  does 
timothy  hay.     The  practical  application  of  these  experiments 

1  Storrs  School  Sta.  Bui.  No,  6   (1890),  p.  14. 

2  Pennsylvania  Sta.  Bui.  No.  71   (1905). 


LEGUMINOUS    FORAGE   CROPS  1 59 

would  seem  to  be  that,  for  tlie  purpose  of  balancing  the  ration, 
clover  hay  has  a  high  feeding  value  for  growing  or  milking 
ruminants;  but  where  the  ration  already  has  sufficient  protein 
for  the  needs  of  the  animals,  clover  hay  is  not  superior,  and  is 
perhaps  inferior,  to  timothy  hay  in  feeding  value. 

170.  History. — Red  clover  was  not  known  to  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  Grecians,  or  Romans  as  a  cultivated  plant.  It  was 
first  cultivated  in  Media,  now  Persia.  It  was  introduced  into 
Spain  and  Italy  during  the  15th  and  i6th  centuries.  During 
the  latter  century  it  was  introduced  from  Spain  into  Brabant 
and  Flanders.  In  1633  it  was  introduced  from  Holland  into 
England,  and  in  about  1770  into  Pennsylvania,  probably 
from  Germany. 

III.     MAMMOTH    CLOVER 

171.  Characteristics. — Mammoth  clover  (Trtfolium  pratense 
perenne  Hort.),  known  also  as  mammoth  red  clover,  peren- 
nial red  clover,  sapling  clover,  and  pea  vine  clover,  frequently 
appears  in  American  writings  as  Trifolium  medium  L.  Zigzag 
or  cow  clover  (T.  medium  L.)  is  an  entirely  distinct  species 
and  has  never  been  known  in  commerce,  probably  on  account 
of  its  poor  seeding  habit. 

Mammoth  clover  is  distinguished  from  red  clover  by  its 
larger  and  coarser  growth,  and  by  its  maturing  from  three  to 
five  weeks  later.  There  are  no  constant  and  reliable  characters 
by  which  the  mammoth  clover  plant  or  seed  can  be  distinguished 
from  red  clover.  The  chief  differences  are  to  be  found  in  its 
more  perennial  character,  its  later  maturity,  and  its  larger  and 
coarser  growth.  It  produces  but  one  crop  each  year,  which 
seeds  abundantly.  This  crop  matures  three  to  five  weeks  later 
than  the  first  crop  of  red  clover. 

172.  Advantages. — Mammoth  clover  matures  about  the  same 
time  as  timothy.    When  red  clover  is  sown  with  timothy  the  crop 


lOO  THE   FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

cannot  be  harvested  when  they  are  both  in  the  best  condition. 
The  danger  is  that  the  crop  will  be  harvested  when  the  clover 
is  too  mature  and  before  the  timothy  has  reached  the  proper 
growth.  Clover  can  generally  be  cured  more  readily  in  July 
than  in  June  both  on  account  of  the  greater  heat  and  the  drier 
atmosphere.  The  deep  roots  and  coarse  growth  of  mammoth 
clover  give  it  a  manurial  value  higher  than  that  of  red  clover. 
The  yield  of  seed  is  generally  greater  than  with  red  clover. 
While  one  crop  of  mammoth  clover  may  not  yield  as  much 
as  two  crops  of  red  clover,  the  larger  single  crop  may  be  the 
more  economical. 

173.  Disadvantages. — The  coarse  stems  of  mammoth  clover 
are  likely  to  become  woody  and  produce  hay  which  is  less 
readily  eaten  by  cattle  than  hay  of  red  clover.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  on  rich  soils  where  mammoth  clover  has  a  rather 
large  proportion  of  stems  to  leaves.  In  this  case  the  crop  is 
likely  to  fall  badly  and  the  stems  lying  upon  the  ground  are 
likely  to  deteriorate  in  quality  before  cutting. 

174.  Adaptation. — In  general  its  soil  and  climatic  adaptation 
and  its  cultural  methods  are  similar  to  those  of  red  clover.  It 
is  best  adapted  to  relatively  poor  soils,  both  because  of  the 
greater  benefit  to  the  soil  and  because  such  soils  prevent  too 
rank  a  growth.  On  such  soils  it  is  an  excellent  crop  to  raise 
for  seed,  both  because  of  the  high  yield  of  seed  and  the  high 
manurial  value  resulting  from  the  large  amount  of  vegetable 
matter  kept  in  and  on  the  soil.  This  is  especially  desirable  on 
farms  where  the  live  stock  is  not  sufficient  to  consume  it,  should 
the  clover  be  made  into  hay.  Under  these  conditions  an  ex- 
cellent rotation  consists  of  maize,  small  grain,  and  mammoth 
clover,  each  one  year.  In  some  sections  the  small  grain  may 
be  put  in  on  the  maize  stubble  without  plowing  (C.  A.  128), 
and  thus  the  land  is  plowed  only  once  in  the  rotation.  The 
clover  may  be  pastured  until  June  i   with  benefit  to  the  crop 


LEGUMINOUS   FORAGE   CROPS  l6l 

of  seed  or  may  be  clipped  at  this  time  with  a  mowing-machine.. 
Either  causes  the  plants  to  branch  more  freely  and  also  ro  be 
shorter,  and  hence  less  liable  to  lodge. 

175.  Collateral  Reading. — F.  G.  Stabler  and  C.  Schroter:  The  Best 
Forage   Plants,  pp.   122-135.     London:   David  Nutt,   1889. 

Thomas  Shaw:  Clovers  and  How  to  Grow  Them,  pp.  6-113;  218-237.  New 
York:   Orange  Judd  Co.,    1906. 

W.  J.  Beal:  Grasses  of  North  America,  Vol.  I,  pp.  320-346.  New  York: 
Henry   Holt   &   Co.,    1896. 

W.  A.  Henry:  Feeds  and  Feeding,  pp.  195-201.  Madison,  Wisconsiri:  The 
Author,   1900. 

Henry  Wallace:  Clover  Culture,  pp.  16-27.  Des  Moines:  Homestead  Co., 
1892. 

A.  J.  Pieters:  Agricultural  Seeds — Where  Grown  and  How  Handled.  In 
U.   S.   Dept.  Agr.  Y'earbook   1901,  pp.  238-9. 

L.  R.  Jones:  Red  Clover  Seed.     In  Vermont  Station  Report  1900,  pp.  397-9. 

A.  D.  Selby  and  J.  F.  Hicks:  Clover  and  Alfalfa  Seeds.  Ohio  Station  Bui. 
No.   142,   1903. 

H.  Garman:  On  the  Adulterants  and  Weed  Seeds  Found  in  Kentucky 
Samples  of  Bluegrass,  Orchard  Grass,  Timothy,  Red  Clover,  Mammoth  Clover, 
and  Alfalfa  Seeds.     Kentucky  Station  Bui.  No.   124    (1906),  pp.  9  et  seq. 

F.  H.  Hillman:  Clover  Seeds  and  Their  Impurities.  Nevada  Station  Bui. 
No.  47  (1900),  pp.  12-17. 

Edgar  Brown  and  F.  H.  Hillman:  Seed  of  Red  Clover  and  its  Impurities. 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.   No.  260,   1906. 

W.  M.  Munson:  Red  Clover  from  Various  Sources.  Maine  Station  Bui. 
No.   113    (1905),  pp.  28-36. 

J.  B.  Killebrew:  Grasses  and  Forage  Plants.  Tennessee  Station  Bui.,  Vol. 
XI   (1898),   Nos.  2,   3,   and  4,   pp.   74-84. 


IX 

LEGUMINOUS   FORAGE  CROPS 

I.     ALSIKE    CLOVER 

176.  Relationships. — Alsike  clover  {Trifolium  hybridum  L.), 
also  known  as  Swedish  or  hybrid  clover,  is  a  distinct  species, 
although  thought  by  Linnaeus  to  be  a  hybrid  between  white 
clover  and  red  clover.  Alsike  clover  is  closely  related  to 
Carolina  clover  ( T.  carolinianum  Michx. )  :  the  latter  is  much 
smaller.  A  smaller  type  of  alsike  clover  (T.  elegans  L.)  with 
solid  stems  downy  near  the  apex  and  with  doubly  toothed  leaf- 
lets is  grown  in  Europe  for  ornamental  purposes  and  to  some 
extent  for  forage.  In  Europe,  this  type,  when  grown  along 
with  alsike,  is  said  frequently  to  be  the  cause  of  disease  among 
animals. 

177.  Description. — In  appearance,  especially  of  flowers  and 
leaves,  and  in  the  smoothness  and  fresh  green  color  of  its 
vegetative  parts  alsike  clover  closely  resembles  white  clover, 
while  in  habit  of  growth  it  resembles  red  clover.  Alsike  clover 
is  rather  more  shallow  and  perhaps  less  abundantly  rooted  than 
red  clover,  although  tap  roots  have  been  reported  four  feet 
deep.  For  this  reason  it  has  been  held  not  to  be  as  valuable 
a  renovating  crop.  The  roots,  however,  bear  an  abundance  of 
tubercles  of  rather  larger  size  than  those  of  red  clover.  The 
plant  branches  less  freely  than  red  clover  and  is  more  likely 
to  be  decumbent  when  the  lower  two  or  three  nodes  root  freely, 
thus  giving  it  a  creeping  habit. 

The  flower  heads  are  slightly  larger  than  those  of  white 
clover  and  the  flowers  usually  rather  more  pink.     The  corolla 

J  62 


LEGUMINOUS    FORAGE   CROPS 


103 


is  about  three  times  the  length  of  the  calyx  while  in  white 
clover  it  is  about  twice  the  length  of  the  calyx.  The  flowers 
are  borne  on  slender  pedicels  one-twelfth  to  one-sixth  of  an 
inch  long  instead  of  being  sessile  as  in  red  clover,  and,  as  they 
mature,  become  reflexed 
or  turned  down  so  that 
the  upper  and  lower  part 
of  the  head  during  the 
maturing  period  are  sep- 
arate. The  pod,  a  thin^ 
walled  elongated  legume, 
is  one  to  four,  usually 
two  to  three,  seeded  and 
has    a    persistent    style. 

Ripened    flowers    readily  Alslke  clover  on  the  left;  red  clover  on  the  right. 

fall  from  the  plant,  hence      '^^""  ^'  ^°'""""  ^"^'^  ^"""  ^^-   ^"^-^^"'•th 

■^  '  natural  size 

care  is  required  in  hand- 
ling the  crop  for  seed.    Threshing  is  less  difficult  than  with  red 
clover,  but  the  crop  must  be  cured  thoroughly,  else  seeds  will 
be  crushed  in  threshing. 

178.  Value. — Alsike  clover  may  be  grown  for  hay  or  for 
pasture.  For  hay  it  is  chiefly  valuable  for  growing  on  those 
soils  where  red  clover  does  not  grow  readily,  or  for  growing 
under  those  climatic  conditions  where  red  clover  is  easily  killed. 
In  many  sections  a  mixture  of  red  and  alsike  clover  with  or 
without  timothy  is  desirable.  The  alsike  clover  does  not  retard 
the  red  clover  greatly  and  when  the  latter  fails  to  grow  or  is 
killed  the  alsike  develops  more  freely  and  in  a  measure  takes 
its  place.  The  first  crop  of  alsike  clover  matures  about  the 
same  time  as  red  clover;  the  second  crop  is  comparatively  small. 
The  seeds  are  formed  in  the  first  crop.  It  bears  seed  abundantly, 
and  in  some  sections  it  is  considered  especially  desirable  for 
this  purpose.  No  direct  experiments  with  regard  to  the  relation 
of  insects  to  pollination  have  been  made,  although  the  flower 


104  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

is  essentially  like  that  of  white  clover.  It  produces  an  abundance 
of  honey  of  high  quality,  and  is  prized  by  bee-keepers  for 
this  purpose. 

For  mixture  in  temporary  pastures  it  serves  an  excellent  pur- 
pose. For  permanent  pastures  it  is  not  as  desirable  as  white 
clover,  because  of  its  less  perennial  (three  to  five  years)  and  less 
creeping  habit,  and  because  it  is  less  readily  eaten  by  live  stock, 
probably  on  account  of  its  slightly  bitter  taste.^  The  Tennessee 
Station  reports  that,  when  pastured  exclusively  upon  alsike 
clover,  horses  and  mules  may  be  affected  with  serious  lesions 
of  the  skin  and  mucous  membranes." 

179.    Seed  and  Seeding. — The  seeds  of  alsike  clover  are  wider 
than  long,  about  0.04  inch  long,  0.05  inch  wide  and  0.024  inch 
thick.     By  weight  they  are  about  one- fourth  larger  than  those 
of  white  clover  and  about  one-half  the  size  of 
red  clover  seeds.     There  are  about  700,000  seeds 
to  the  pound.     The  radicle  varies   from  beyond 
^^1^    one-half  to  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  seed 
^iP    and  projects  prominently,  thus  usually  giving  a 
distinctly   heart-shaped   appearance   to   the   seed. 
Alsike  clover   The  color  is  varied  and  frequently  mottled  from 
si°ngie"  see^d  \n  yeHow  to  green,   the  predominating  color  being 
the  right.    En-  olive  green.   Old  seeds  become  reddish  brown  and 
Urged     four  .  ^         •         r       1 

times.  ^^^  sometimes  dyed  green  to  give  fresh  appear- 

ance, which  may  be  detected  by  rubbing  with  a 
white  cloth.  The  purity  of  commercial  seed  is  generally  rather 
better  than  with  red  clover,  while  the  germinating  power  is  not 
so  good.  The  standard  of  purity  should  be  98  per  cent,  and 
of  germination  not  less  than  75  per  cent.  Canada  thistle  seed 
and  wire  grass  or  Canada  blue  grass  seed  are  more  common 
than  in  red  clover  seed,,  doubtless  due  to  the  region  in  which 
the  seed  is  chiefly  produced.     The  viability  of  the  seed  is  not 

1  Stabler  and   Schroter :   Best  Forage   Plants,  p.  86. 

2  Tennessee  Sta.  Bui.  Vol.  XVIII   (1905),  No.  3. 


LEGUMINOUS   FORAGE   CROPS  165 

known.  Seedsmen  usually  furnish  60  pounds  for  a  bushel,  but 
the  actual  weight  for  a  measured  bushel  is  much  greater — 
about  90  pounds. 

Except  for  seed,  it  is  not  desirable  to  sow  alsike  clover  alone. 
In  this  case  eight  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre,  or  about  125 
seeds  a  square  foot,  may  be  sown.  A  good  mixture  for  hay 
is  timothy  15,  red  clover  6,  and  alsike  clover  4  pounds.  When 
grown  with  timothy,  aliske  is  easily  cured  and  makes  a  hay  of 
excellent  quality.  Without  timothy,  8  pounds  of  red  clover  and 
6  pounds  of  alsike  may  be  used.  Even  where  alsike  hay  is 
chiefly  desired,  the  addition  of  some  timothy — say  four  pounds 
timothy  seed  and  eight  pounds  alsike  seed — is  desirable,  because 
timothy  helps  to  prevent  the  alsike  from  being  blown  down 
and  also  facilitates  the  curing. 

180.  History. — Alsike  clover  appear^  first  to  have  become 
extensively  cultivated  in  Sweden  at  the  village  of  Syke  or 
Alsike  near  Upsala,  whence  in  1834  it  was  introduced  into  Eng- 
land. At  the  end  of  the  preceding  century  it  had  been  introduced 
into  northern  France,  but  its  cultivation  in  parts  of  Europe, 
as  in  Switzerland,  is  quite  recent.  There  is  no  record  of  its 
first  introduction  and  use  in  America. 

II.     WHITE   CLOVER 

181.  Description. — White  clover  (Trifolium  repens  L.),  also 
commonly  known  as  Dutch  clover,  differs  from  alsike  clover 
in  its  shallower  root  system  (mostly  within  the  first  six  inches 
of  the  soil),  its  prostrate  and  creeping  habit,  and  its  smaller 
size.  (176)  The  leaf  and  flower  stalks  are  relatively  long. 
The  latter  do  not  arise  from  erect  leafy  stems,  as  in  the  case  of 
alsike  clover,  but  arise  directly  from  prostrate  stems  or  stolons, 
which  constitutes  a  ready  means  of  distinguishing  the  two 
species.  The  prostrate  stems  root  freely  at  the  node  from  which 
may  arise   independent  plants.     This  habit,   together  with   its 


l66  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

perennial  character,  causes  the  plant  to  spread  rapidly  and  form 
a  fairly  dense  sod.  The  pod,  very  similar  to  that  of  alsike,  con- 
tains on  an  average  a  large  number  of  seeds — usually  three 
to  four,  sometimes  five  or  six.  The  seed  resembles  that  of 
alsike  in  shape,  but  is  smaller  and  of  different  color.  The 
solid  color  varies  from  orange,  sometimes  red,  to  yellow  when 
fresh,  changing  to  reddish-brown  when  old. 

Giant  broad-leaved  white  clover,  an  improved  variety  of  white 
clover  imported  from  Italy,  was  tried  at  the  North  Carolina 
Station.  The  plant  was  reported  to  be  much  more  robust,  to 
have  larger  leaves,  and  to  produce  twice  the  herbage,  but  a  small 
quantity  of  seed. 

182.  Distribution  and  Adaptation. — White  clover  is  indige- 
nous or  naturalized  commonly  throughout  North  America, 
Europe,  parts  of  Asia,  and  northern  Africa.  It  is  less  sensitive 
to  climate,  especially  cold,  than  is  red  clover.  It  thrives  best 
in  a  moist  but  well-drained  soil,  particularly  in  one  with  plenty 
of  lime  and  humus.  While  it  needs  warmth  and  moisture,  it 
withstands  drought  better  than  does  red  clover.  The  applica- 
tion of  lime,  potash,  and  phosphates  increases  its  growth.  The 
effect  of  wood  ashes  in  bringing  in  white  clover  where  none 
was  noticed  before  is  more  marked  than  with  red  and  alsike 
clovers.  (157)  An  abundant  growth  of  white  clover  is  an 
indication  of  a  productive  soil.  This  clover  holds  the  same 
relation  to  Kentucky  blue  grass  that  red  clover  does  to  timothy. 
It  is  suitable  for  pasture  only,  for  which,  in  connection  with 
Kentucky  blue  grass,  it  is  unexcelled.  It  stands  pasturage 
well  and  is  not  likely  to  cause  bloat  in  cattle  as  is  the  case 
with  red  clover. 

During  August,  when  the  white  clover  contains  an  abundance 
of  seed,  it  causes  horses  pastured  upon  it  to  "slobber" — probably 
because  of  the  acrid  nature  of  the  seed,  a  characteristic  of  all 
clovers.     White  clover  is  highly  prized  as  a  honey  plant. 


LEGUMINOUS   FORAGE   CROPS  167 

183.  Seed  and  Seeding. — White  clover  is  rarely  adulterated, 
but  old  seeds  have  been  rubbed  with  flowers  of  sulphur  to  give 
them  a  fresh  yellow  color.  The  weed  seeds  are  about  the  same 
as  those  occurring  in  red  clover.  Commercial  seed,  about  800,- 
000  to  the  pound,  should  have  the  same  standard  of  purity  and 
of  germination  as  alsike  clover,  98  and  75  per  cent,  respectively. 
The  plant  seeds  freely:  European  authorities 
report  4  to  15  bushels  an  acre.  The  seed  may 
evidently  remain  in  the  soil  several  years  and 
still  grow.  Its  viability  is,  therefore,  con- 
sidered better  than  that  of  other  clovers,  al- 
though this  has  not  been  proved.  The  per- 
centage of  "hard"  or  dormant  seeds  is  said  to 
be  higher  than  in  red  clover.  Stebler  examined  white  ciover.  Pod 
a  pound  of  the  dried  residue  from  liquid  ma-  ^^^f '„^'h,  'f/ht^ 
nure  which  had  been  left  in  a  barrel  and  Enlarged  four  times. 
found  it  to  contain  5,370  seeds  with  a 
germinating  power  of  62  per  cent.  The  reason  for  the  occur- 
rence of  white  clover  in  fields  which  have  been  manured  with 
stable  manure  is  not  far  to  seek.  According  to  Darwin's  ex- 
periments, white  clover  may  produce  seed  sparingly  without 
the  intervention  of  insects,  but  most  of  the  seed  is  produced 
by  cross-fertilization. 

Considerable  white  clover  seed  is  harvested  in  eastern  Wis- 
consin. The  seed  is  produced  in  the  first  crop.  In  Wisconsin 
it  is  harvested  from  July  20  to  August  i.  Self-seeded  fields 
furnish  the  bulk  of  the  crop,  from  which  it  is  cut  year  after 
year.  When  the  growth  is  large  enough  the  buncher  is  used. 
(165)  Otherwise  there  is  attached  to  the  cutter  bar  of  the 
mowing-machine  a  platform  made  of  galvanized  iron.  Holes 
are  drilled  through  the  back  of  the  bar  and  the  platform  at- 
tached with  bolts.  As  the  clover  gathers  upon  this  platform,  a 
man  following  the  machine  rakes  it  off  into  bunches.  After 
curing  a  few  days  it  is  threshed  with  the  clover  huller.     (166) 

White   clover   is   not   largely   sown,   but   finds   its   way   into 


l68  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

pastures  which  are  suited  to  it.  It  is  very  unevenly  distributed 
in  the  field  and  grows  very  unequally  in  different  seasons.  It 
is  never  sown  alone  but  in  mixtures  at  the  rate  of  two  to  six 
pounds  an  acre.     It  constitutes  a  part  of  many  lawn  mixtures. 

III.     CRIMSON    CLOVER 

184.  Relationships. — Crimson  clover  {Trifolium  mcarnatum 
L.),  also  known  as  scarlet  clover  and  carnation  clover,  differs 
from  other  commonly  cultivated  clovers  in  America  in  that  it 
produces  seed  within  less  than  a  year  from  seed.  Crimson 
clover  is  closely  related  to  the  smaller  wild  rabbit  foot  or  stone 
clover  (T.  arvense  L.),  commonly  naturalized  from  Europe 
throughout  the  North  Atlantic  and  southern  states. 

185.  Description. — Crimson  clover  has  a  strong,  branched 
tap  root  and  numerous  secondary  branches  reaching  to  a 
moderate   depth.     Under   greenhouse    conditions   tubercles   are 

found  abundantly  upon  roots  when 
the  plant  is  three  to  four  weeks  old. 
Six  to  twelve  branches  or  stems  one 
to  three  feet  high  arise  from  the 
axils  of  the  leaves  of  the  short  main 
stem :  they  are  but  little  branched 
and  grow  quite  erect,  giving  the 
plant  a  bushy  appearance.  The 
vegetative  parts  are  characterized 
by  their  hairy,  almost  woolly,  ap- 
pearance. The  densely  flowered 
cone-like  heads  are  one  to  one  and 
a  half  inches  in  length  and  three- 
Crimson  clover  heads  Middle  one  ^^^^^^^  ^^  ^^^^  j^^j^  j^^  diameter.  The 
has  been  injured    by  clover-root 

mealy  bug   (Pseudococcus  trifoiii  calyx  has  short  and  prominent  teeth 

Forbes).     One-third  natural  size.  j    •  i     •  ^u      i.    •        u 

(From  photo  by  Carman)  ^^.^  '^  ^^^^  ^^^^^  '  ^^e  hairs  becOme 

spiny  as  the  head  matures.  The 
color  of  the  corolla  may  be  scarlet,  flesh-colored,  whitish  or 
yellowish,  depending  on  variety.     The  time  of  flowering  varies 


LEGUMINOUS   FORAGE   CROPS  1 69 

from  April  to  June,  depending  on  locality,  time  of  seeding,  and 
the  variety. 

186.  Varieties. — The  common  form  has  scarlet  flowers,  but 
there  is  another  commercial  form  in  the  United  States  which 
has  white  flowers  and  is  said  to  be  taller,  less  hardy  and  two 
to  four  weeks  later  in  flowering.  In  Europe  strains  of  the 
crimson  type  with  different  periods  of  blooming  are  recognized. 

"Ordinary  Trifolium  incarnatum  blooms  the  last  of  May.  There  is  an 
earlier  variety  which  blooms  eight  days  sooner.  A  later  variety,  called  St. 
Johns,  cultivated  for  a  long  time  about  Toulouse,  prolongs  the  ordinary 
harvest  at  least  two  weeks.  A  white-flowered  variety,  obtained  by  Lejeune 
and  propagated  by  Vilmorin,  is  said  to  be  still  later  by  ten  to  fifteen  days. 
A  yet  later  variety  with  red  flowers  blooms  after  this  last.  By  sowing  these 
five  varieties,  we  can  continue  the  ripening  of  the  green  forage  from  the 
beginning  of  May  to  the  end  of  the  first  two  weeks  of  July,  at  least."  ^ 

187.  Distribution  and  Adaptation. — Crimson  clover  is  cul- 
tivated principally  in  the  South  Atlantic  states,  especially  in 
those  states  north  of  the  cotton  belt.  It  is  not  generally  adapted 
to  the  climate  north  of  the  fortieth  parallel,  except  on  the  Pacific 
coast.  It  does  best  on  sandy  soils  in  warm,  moist  climates. 
Since  it  cannot  endure  much  freezing  nor  extreme  heat  and 
drought,  its  distribution  as  a  cultivated  plant  is  rather  limited. 
The  Alabama  Station  has  shown  that  in  some  instances  its 
failure  to  grow  successfully  may  be  due  to  lack  of  inoculation, 
but  that  probably  where  clovers  of  any  kind  will  grow  artificial 
inoculation  is  unnecessary." 

188.  Value. — The  principal  value  of  crimson  clover  is  as  a 
cover  crop  in  orchards  and  as  a  renovating  crop  in  rotations, 
the  fall  sown  crop  being  plowed  in  time  to  plant  maize  or 
cotton.  It  may  be  used  for  winter  pasturage  or  for  soiling,  but 
it  is  not  generally  satisfactory  for  hay,  on  account  of  its  woolly 

^Gano:  Thesis:  The  True  Clovers,  pp.  79,  80;  quoted  from  C.  Garola: 
Plantes   Fourrageres,   1904. 

-Alabama  Sta.  Bui.  No.  87   (1897),  p.  477, 


170  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

character  and  the  harshness  of  the  flower  heads.  It  has  been 
reported  to  injure  cattle  by  forming  "hair  balls"  in  the  digestive 
tract/     The  Delaware  Station  recommends  it  for  silage." 

189.  Seed. — The  seed  of  crimson  clover  is  enclosed  in  a 
capsule  which  opens  transversely  as  in  the  case  of  red 
clover.  The  seeds  are  relatively  large,  125,000  to  150,000  to 
the  pound.  Seedsmen  usually  sell  60  pounds  for  a  bushel. 
This  clover  is  not  usually  adulterated  in  this  country,  but 
in  Europe  berseem  seed  is  used,  and  is  difficult  to  detect 
because  of  the  similarity  in  size,  shape  and  color.  Berseem 
seed  is  less  glossy,  is  less  uniformly  and  perfectly  oval,  the 
radicle  being  more  apparent,  and  usually  the  hilum  and  sur- 
rounding portion  are  darker  colored.  The  standard  of  purity 
should  be  98  per  cent,  and  of  germination  90  per  cent.  The 
seeds  are  said  to  deteriorate  rapidly  with  age.  They  are  0.09 
to  0.12  inch  long,  0.06  to  0.07  inch  wide  and  0.05  to  0.06  inch 
thick.  The  radicle,  which  is  at  least  one-half  the  length  of  the 
seed,  is  not  prominent.  The  seeds  are,  therefore,  quite  globular. 
The  color  is  reddish-gold,  or  straw-yellow,  varying  to  brownish. 
The  hilum  is  usually  fringed  with  reddish-brown,  a  trace  of 
which  may  extend  toward  the  end  of  the  seed.  When  seeds 
are  old  they  become  wrinkled  and  brown. 

Crimson  clover  is  raised  chiefly  in  Delaware  and  surrounding 
states.  One  method  is  to  sow  buckwheat  in  July  or  August 
with  a  grain  drill,  using  three-fourths  of  a  bushel  of  seed  per 
acre,  and  follow  with  crimson  clover,  using  a  wheelbarrow 
seeder,  at  the  rate  of  one  peck  of  seed  per  acre.  The  buck- 
wheat is  harvested  in  the  fall,  and  the  crimson  clover  the  follow- 
ing spring.  Crimson  clover  is  also  sometimes  sown  in  maize 
at  the  last  cultivation. 

In  cutting  crimson  clover  for  seed,  it  is  necessary  to  cut  in  the 
night  time  or  early  in  the  morning  when  the  dew  is  on,  in  order 

lU.   S.   Dept.   Agr.,   Div.   Agros.    Circ.   No.  8. 
2  Delaware   Sta.   Bui.   No.    16    (1892). 


LEGUMINOUS    FOR/VGE    CROPS 


171 


to  prevent  seed  from  shattering.  The  self-rake  reaper  is  con- 
sidered the  most  satisfactory  machine  for  harvesting.  Thresh- 
ing should  be  done  as  soon  as  possible,  since  the  seed  sprouts 
readily  if  exposed  to  damp  weather.  Stacking  is  not  desirable, 
since  heating  is  liable  to  cause  seeds  to  turn  dark.  Five  bushels, 
and  in  some  instances  ten  to  twelve  bushels,  of  seed  per  acre 
may  be  obtained. 

190.  Seeding. — Although  sometimes  sown  in  the  spring, 
crimson  clover  is  usually  sown  in  August  or  September  and 
harvested  the  next  May  or  June.  Generally  it  is  sown  alone — 
that  is,  without  mixture  of  grasses  or  other  clovers  and  without 
a  grain  or  nurse  crop — usually  at  the  rate  of  10  to  20  pounds  of 
seed  per  acre.     It  is  sometimes  sown  with  rye  for  soiling. 

191.  History. — Crimson  clover  was  probably  cultivated  from 
somewhat  early  times  among  the  Pyrenees  in  southern  France 


Root  tubercles  on  berseem.    The  roots  belong  to  a  plant  five  months  old  grown  in  the 

greenhouse  in  rather  sandy  soil,  but  without  any  artificial  inoculation 

(From  photo  by  Gano) 


172  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

and  northern  Spain.  In  other  parts  of  Europe  it  has  been 
chiefly  cultivated  only  in  the  last  century.  While  grown  in 
Chester  County,  Pennsylvania,  as  early  as  1820,  its  principal 
use  has  taken  place  since  1890. 

IV.     MINOR   CLOVERS 

192.  Berseem  (Trifolium  alexandrinum  L.),  also  known  as  Alexandrian 
clover  and  Egyptian  clover,  is  an  annual  with  ascending  but  not  very  erect 
stems,  two  to  three  feet,  and  sometimes  under  irrigation,  five  feet  high.  These 
stems  are  glabrous  and  smooth,  and  rather  succulent  until  the  flowering  period. 
The  leaflets  are  more  elongated  and  longer  than  in  red  clover,  and  softly 
hairy  on  both  sides.  The  flower  heads,  smaller  and  less  densely  flowered 
than  in  red  clover,  are  borne  on  axillary  stalks  near  the  tip  of  the  stems. 
The  flowers  are  white  or  cream-colored.  The  pod  is  one-seeded,  the  seeds 
resembling  those  of  crimson  clover.  (189)  The  root  system  is  shallow, 
but  abundant.  The  roots  are  characterized  by  the  large  tubercles  which 
they  bear. 

Berseem  is  the  one  great  forage  crop  of  Lower  Egypt.  "Few  single  species 
in  any  country  play  a  more  important  role  in  agriculture.  It  furnishes  the 
green  fodder  for  all  work  animals  in  the  towns:  all  beef  and  milch  animals 
are  fed  on  it:  well  kept  donkeys  and  even  poor  fellahs  use  it  for  food."  ^ 
It  has  been  introduced  into  America  with  the  hope  that  it  may  be  found 
useful  in  the  warmer  irrigated  sections,  but  its  place,  if  any,  has  not  yet 
been  established. 

193.  Hungarian  Clover  {Trifolium  pannonicum  Jacq.)  has  white,  creamy 
or  yellowish  flowers  in  dense  spikes.  Otherwise  its  appearance  and  habits  of 
growth  are  similar  to  those  of  mammoth  clover.  Since  it  is  perennial,  it  is 
believed  that  it  might  have  a  place  for  certain  agricultural  conditions.  It 
seems,  however,  to  produce  seed  sparingly  and  of  a  rather  low  germinating 
power.  It  is  said  to  be  earlier  than  red  clover,  but  not  as  well  liked  by  cattle. 
It  is  indigenous  to  Hungary,  and  has  been  successfully  cultivated  for  hay  in 
Europe,  where  it  is  also  used  for  ornamental  purposes. 

194.  Yellow  Suckling  Clover  {Trifolium  filiforme  L.)  is  a  small  annual, 
shallow  rooted,  procumbent  plant  with  somewhat  the  habit  of  growth  of 
white  clover.  It  is  smaller  and  does  not  seem  to  root  at  the  nodes  freely,  if 
at  all,  as  does  white  clover.  There  are  only  five  to  six  flowers  to  a  head; 
they  are  yellowish,  pedicelled  and  finally  reflexed.  The  seed  pod  normally 
contains  one  seed.  The  oval  seeds  are  rather  smaller  than  those  of  white 
clover,  smooth,  glossy,  and  vary  in  color  from  golden-yellow  to  brown.  It 
is  native  to  England  and  southern  Europe,  and  is  said  to  prefer  sandy  soils 
on  which  it  is  recommended  for  sheep  pasture.     It  is  seldom  sown. 

lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bu.  PL  Ind.  Bui.  No.  23   (1903). 


LEGUMINOUS  FORAGE  CROPS  1 73 

195.  Collateral  Reading. — F.  G.  Stabler  and  C.  Schroter:  The  Best 
Forage  Plants,  pp.  83-8.     London:   David  Nutt,   1899. 

Thomas  Shaw:  Clovers  and  How  to  Grow  Them,  pp.  194-217;  238-257; 
258-278.     New  York:   Orange  Judd  Co.,    1906. 

Henry  Wallace:  Clover  Culture,  pp.  45-63.  Des  Moines:  Homestead  Co., 
1892. 

Byron  Hunter:  Forage  Crop  Practises  in  Western  Oregon  and  Western 
Washington.     U.   S.   Dept.   Agr.,   Farmers'   Bui.   No.   271,    1907. 

F.  H.  Hillman:  Clover  Seeds  and  Their  Impurities.  Nevada  Station  Bui. 
No.  47    (1900),  pp.    17-24. 

J.  B.  Killebrew:  Grasses  and  Forage  Plants.  Tennessee  Station  Bui.,  Vol. 
XI    (1898),   Nos  2,   3,  and  4,   pp.   84-9. 

Harcourt  A.  Morgan  and  Moses  Jacob:  Alsike  Clover.  Tennessee  Station 
Bui.  Vol.  XVIII    (1905),  No.  3. 

D.  O.  Nourse:  Crimson  Clover.     Virginia  Station  Bui.  No.  44,  1894. 

Thomas  A.  Williams:  Crimson  Clover.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Div.  Agros.  Circ. 
No.   17,   1899. 


X 


LEGUMINOUS    FORAGE   CROPS 

I.     ALFALFA 

196.  Relationships. — Alfalfa  or  lucerne  (Medicago  sativa  L.), 
also  known  as  purple  medic  to  distinguish  it  from  other  species 
of  the  genus,  belongs  to  the  same  tribe  (Trifolieae)  as  the 
true  clovers  (Trifolium)  and  the  sweet  clovers  (Melilotus), 
all  being  characterized  by  the  three  leaflets  into  which  the 
leaf  is  divided.  A  number  of  species  of  Medicago  have  been 
either  grown  in  America  or  tested  by  the  experiment  stations. 
These  are  black  medic  (M.  lupulina  L.),  bur  clovers  (M.  denti- 
culata  Willd.  and  M.  maculata  Wilkl.),  snail  clover  (M.  tur- 
hinata  Willd.),  sand  lucerne  (M.  media  Pers.),  and  yellow 
lucerne  (M.  falcata  L.).  The  last  two  are  sometimes  considered 
by  botanists  as  varieties  of  alfalfa  {M.  sativa  L.),  but  they 
differ  widely  in  agricultural  value.  The  name  alfalfa  is  Spanish, 
o/ rzr  the  article  the,  and  falfa  ^=i  fazfazah  (Arabic),  meaning 
"a  certain  plant  used  for  fodder."  The  earlier  Spanish  form 
was  alfalfez. 

197.  Roots. — Alfalfa  is  characterized  by  its  strong  deep 
growing  tap  root.  The  depth  depends  on  the  age,  character 
of  the  soil  and  the  depth  of  the  permanent  water  table.  In 
some  instances  roots  will  have  reached  the  depth  of  five  feet 
in  six  months,  while  those  of  old  plants  have  been  known  to 
grow  extraordinary  depths.  (130)  The  tap  root  is  usually 
under  one-half  inch  in  diameter  just  below  the  crown,  and 
grows  without  many  secondary  roots  nearly  to  its  end  where 
it    divides    into    a    few    branched    roots    of    about    equal    size. 

174 


LEGUMINOUS  FORAGE  CROPS         .    I75 

Sometimes  several  roots  set  off  from  the  tap  root  near  the 
crown.  These  are  large  like  the  tap  root  and  extend  directly 
downward  as  deeply  as  the  tap  root  or  nearly  so.  In  some 
cases  the  roots  are  two  to  three  inches  in  diameter,  but  this 
usually  occurs  where  the  tap  root  is  cut  off  or  is  prevented 
from  penetrating  the  soil  to  any  great  depth.  Roots  do  not 
enter  the  permanent  water  table  more  than  four  to  eight  inches. 
They  do  not  decay  nor  die,  but  simply  stop  growing.  On  ac- 
count of  the  lack  of  fibrous  roots  and  the  depth  of  the  branched 
end  of  the  tap  root  a  much  deeper  proportion  of  the  feeding 
surface  of  the  roots  is  in  the  sub-soil,  the  character  of  which 
is  very  important  to  this  crop.  Although  desirable,  it  is  ap- 
parently not  necessary  that  the  sub-soil  be  friable.  Roots  will 
penetrate  a  hard  tenacious  clay  if  not  prevented  by  the  occur- 
rence of  a  permanent  water  table.^ 

Under  proper  field  conditions  root-tubercles  begin  to  occur 
not  later  than  two  to  three  months  from  sowing.  They  are 
elongated  oval,  not  very  conspicuous,  occurring  on  both  the  main 
and  the  fibrous  roots.  According  to  Passerini,  root-tubercles 
are  more  abundant  during  the  first  season  than  thereafter.^ 

198.  Habit  of  Growth  Above  Ground. — The  young  seedling 
throws  up  a  single  stem,  but  as  it  grows  older  other  erect 
stems  arise  from  the  crown.  With  older  plants  in  the  spring 
under  field  conditions,  3  to  12,  sometimes  20  to  30,  erect  stems 
6  inches  to  60  inches  tall,  usually  18  to  30  inches,  arise  from 
the  crown.  Plants  growing  alone  may  have  from  150  to  200 
stems.  The  underground  portion  of  these  stems  elongates 
slightly  and  thus  the  crown  becomes  branched.  On  these 
branches  new  stems  and  new  roots  may  arise.  If  these  branches 
are  split  apart,  several  plants  may  be  formed  from  a  single 
plant.     When  the  crop   is   mown  during  the  growing  season, 

1  Colorado  Sta.  Bui.  No.  35    (1896). 

2  Bui.  Soc.  Bot.  Ital.,  1900,  pp.  16,  17. 


176  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

new  Stems  arise  both  from  the  crown  and  from  the  remaining 
portions  of  the  clipped  stems.  Rather  short,  leafy  branches 
arise  from  the  stems  having  a  distinctly  smaller  diameter  than 
the  stems  from  which  they  arise.  The  Colorado  Station  re- 
ported the  average 
diameter  of  300 
stems  at  one-sixth  of 
an  inch.  The  pro- 
portion of  leaves  to 
stems  at  early  ma- 
turity is  about  40 
leaves  to  60  stems, 
according  to  the 
Colorado  Station, 
while  according  to 
the  Minnesota  Sta- 
tion the  nitrogen  in 
leaves  and  stems  was 
about  60  to  40, 

The  lateral  leaflets 
are  on  the  side  of  the 
leaf -stalk,  pinnate, 
instead  of  at  the  end, 

Alfalfa  plant  taken  July  17,  six  days  after  second  cut-  palmate      aS     in     the 

ting.    Picture  shows  stubs  remaining  from  first  cutting;  ■* 

stubs    from  second  cutting  with    new  shoots    arising  clovcrs,    and    readily 

therefrom  and  new  shoots  arising  from  the  rhizome;  r   11        rr    A-,^*.:^^.    piit— 

also  shows  rhizome  branched  and  split  apart.  ° 

ing  and  handling. 
The  leaflets  are  more  elongated  and  pointed  than  in  red  clover, 
and  are  quite  variable  in  size,  but  are  generally  much  smaller, 
usually  three-fourths  to  one  inch  long  and  three-eighths  to  one- 
half  inch  wide.  The  veins  of  the  leaflets  end  in  more  or  less 
prominent  teeth.  Although  on  close  examination  the  vegetative 
parts  may  be  slightly  hairy,  the  general  appearance  is  that  of 
a  smooth  or  glabrous  plant. 


LEGUMINOUS  FORAGE  CROPS 


177 


199.  Inflorescence. — Six  to  a  dozen  or  more  purple  flowers 
are  borne  in  a  short  raceme,  which  as  the  flowers  mature  forms 
a  more  or  less  head-like  cluster.  Each  flower  is  on  a  short,  slen- 
der pedicel,  which  makes  its  removal  from  the  flower  head  easy. 


Raceme  of  alfalfa  flowers  taken  at  Cornell  Station  Sept.  1 2.     Natural  size 


Hildebrandt  has  shown  that  seeds  may  form  without  the  visita- 
tion of  insects.^  Hunter  reports  an  experiment  in  Kansas  where 
the  honey  bees  increased  the  crop  two-thirds  over  fields  not 
visited  by  bees."  The  quality  of  the  honey  was  excellent.  Al- 
falfa, however,  would  be  valuable  as  a  honey  crop  only  when 
grown  for  seed,  since  when  cut  for  hay  comparatively  few  flow- 
ers are  allowed  to  develop.    Among  practical  seed  growers  the 

1  Stabler  and  Schroter:  The  Best  Forage  Plants,  p.   146. 
-  Contrib.  Ent.  Lab.  Univ.  Kansas,   1899,  No.  65. 


178  THE   FORAGE   AND   FIBER   CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

visitation  of  insects  is  not  recognized  as  a  factor  in  the  abun- 
dance of  seed.  As  the  pistil  grows  into  a  pod  it  becomes  a 
spiral  legume  with  two  to  four  turns  and  is  many-seeded. 

200.    Seedc — Alfalfa  seeds  are  distinguished   from   seeds  of 

closely  related  plants  some- 
what by  their  color,  size, 
and  shape,  although  the 
shape  is  quite  variable, 
owing  to  the  occurrence  of 
several  seeds  in  the  spirally- 
twisted  seed  pod.  Viewed 
laterally,  they  vary  from 
nearly  oval  in  the  smaller 
specimens  to  distinctly  kid- 
ney-shaped in  the  larger 
ones.  The  radicle  (caulicle) 
is  half,  sometimes  a  little 
more  than  half,  the  length 
of  the  seed;  it  is  distinct, 
but  not  prominent.  The  tip 
of  the  caulicle  does  not 
Alfalfa  showing  clusters  of  seed  pods,  a  Single  ^^^^1^  project,  and  this 
pod  enlarged  _        j      r      j        :> 

chiefly  in  the  kidney-shaped 
specimens.  The  larger  seeds  especially  are  curved,  and  even 
in  some  instances  spirally-twisted.  The  color  of  the  in- 
dividual seed  is  uniform,  except  for  the  darker  markings  about 
the  scar  and  a  light  stripe  which  may  occur  along  the  raphe. 
Alfalfa  seed  may  be  distinguished  from  red  clover  seed  by  its 
uniform  light  olive-green  color  as  contrasted  with  the  purple 
and  yellow  of  the  latter.  Alfalfa  seeds  are  usually  0.08  to  0.12 
inch  long,  and  0.05  to  0.07  inch  wide.  The  number  of 
seeds  a  pound  may  vary  from  less  than  200,000  to  more  than 
240,000;  perhaps  225,000  would  be  a  fair  average.  Sixty  pounds 
are  sold  for  a  bushel. 


LEGUMINOUS  FORAGE  CROPS  I79 

201.  Adulterations  and  Impurities.— Alfalfa  seed  has  been 
extensively  adulterated  with  black  medic  seed  imported  from 
Europe.  (236)  Recently  enacted  laws  will  probably  prevent 
the  practise  hereafter.  Sweet  clover 
seed  sometimes  occurs,  although  rare- 
ly as  an  adulteration.  (250)  Prob- 
ably it  more  frequently  occurs  because 
of  the  presence  of  this  plant  in  alfalfa 
fields.  Seeds  of  the  bur  clovers  have 
been  rather  extensively  used  as  an 
adulterant  in  Europe,  since  these  Alfalfa.  Pod  on  the  left,  single 
plants  are  widely  distributed  in  South  ''"^  °"  'LVAtmes  ^"""'"'^ 
America,  the  hooked  pods  of  which 

gather  in  the  wool  of  sheep,  the  seed  thus  becoming  a  by- 
product in  the  manufacture  of  woolen  cloth.  (238)  The 
most  common  impurities  in  alfalfa  seeds  as  found  in  53  samples 
by  the  Nevada  Station,^  and  in  15  samples  by  the  Ohio  Station," 
are  as  follows:  clover  dodder  (Cuscuta  epithymum  Murr.), 
field  dodder  (C.  arvensis  Beyr.),  lamb's  quarters  (Chenopodium 
album  L.),  western  atriplex  (Atriplex  truncata  Torr.),  prostrate 
amaranth  {Amaranthus  blitoides  S.  Wats.),  green  foxtail  grass 
(Chaetochloa  viridis  (L.)  Scribn.)  and  witch  grass  (Panicum 
capillar e  L.). 

202.  Dodder. — By  far  the  most  serious  impurity  in  alfalfa 
seed  is  the  dodder,  of  which  there  are  now  recognized  to  be 
three  species  occurring  on  either  red  or  mammoth  clover  or 
alfalfa — namely,  field  dodder  (Cuscuta  arvensis  Beyr.),  alfalfa 
dodder  (C  epithymum  Murr.),  and  clover  dodder  (C.  trifolii 
Bab.).  The  first  species  is  sometimes  referred  to  as  large  seeded 
dodder,  while  the  last  two  species  are  not  usually  separated  and 
are  commonly  called  clover  or  small  seeded  dodder.  The  species 
most  commonly  occurring  in  commercial  seed  and  upon  alfalfa 

1  Nevada  Sta.  Bui.  No.  47   (1900),  p.  11. 

2  Ohio   Sta.  Bui.  No.   142   (1903),  p.   121. 


i8o 


THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


appears  to  be  the  small  seeded  alfalfa  dodder  (C.  epithymum 
Murr.).  Field  dodder  occurs  on  many  plants,  especially  south- 
ward, where  it  is  known  as  love  vine ;  while  the  small 
seeded  dodder  seems  to  be  pretty  closely  restricted  to  clover 
and  alfalfa. 

The  habit  of  all  these  species  is  similar.  The  seeds  germinate 
in  the  soil,  but  the  plant  soon  attaches  itself  to  the  alfalfa  or 
other  plant  by  means  of  suckers,  the  thread-like  stem  of  the 
plant  twining  about  the  stem  of  its  host.  The  leaves  are  reduced 


Alfalfa  seed  on  the  left,  dodder  seed  on  the  right.    Both  enlarged 
(From  photo  by  Slingerland) 


to  minute  alternate  scales.  In  the  small  seeded  species  the 
seeds  are  red  and  the  small  flower  pinkish;  in  the  field  or  large 
seeded  dodder  the  stem  is  yellow  and  the  flowers  greenish  white. 
In  the  clover  dodder  the  seeds  are  uniformly  dull  gray,  oval 
or  roundish,  less  than  0.04  inch  in  diameter;  in  alfalfa  dodder 
the  seeds  are  reddish-yellow,  elongated  rather  than  round,  0.04 
inch  long  by  0.02  inch  wide ;  in  field  dodder  the  seeds  are  bright 
orange-yellow,  somewhat  angular,  presenting  their  somewhat 
flat  surfaces  with  angles  betewen,  0.04  and  0.05  inch  in  diameter. 
The  seeds  of  the  large  seeded  dodder  being  about  the  size 
of  those  of  alfalfa  are  rather  difficult  to  remove,  but  the  smaller 
seeded  dodder  can  be  readily  removed  by  means  of  properly 


LEGUMINOUS   FORAGE   CROPS  l8l 

adjusted  screens/  As  the  plant  grows  upon  the  alfalfa,  the 
latter  is  killed  and  the  dodder  spreads  to  adjacent  plants  in  an 
ever-widening  circle.  The  dodder  may  be  destroyed  by  plowing 
and  using  the  field  for  cereal  crops  for  two  or  more  years, 
taking  care  to  apply  the  manure  from  the  dodder-infested  al- 
falfa hay  only  to  land  that  will  be  devoted  to  cereals,  potatoes, 
or  other  cultivated  crops.  If  only  a  few  small  patches  occur, 
these  may  be  mown,  the  stubble  sprinkled  with  kerosene,  covered 
with  the  hay,  and  burned.  According  to  the  New  York  State 
Station,  the  small  seeded  dodder  rarely  seeds  in  that  locality, 
but  passes  the  winter  on  crowns  of  alfalfa,  clover,  black  medic, 
and  fleabane   (Erigeron  ramosiis  (Walt.)   B.  S.  P.). 

203.  Germination  and  Viability. — The  standard  of  purity 
should  be  98,  and  the  standard  of  germination  90  per  cent.  It 
is  said  that  the  percentage  of  hard  seed  is  often  high,  but 
diminishes  with  age.  While  the  viability  of  alfalfa  seed  is 
not  definitely  known,  two  and  three-year-old  seed  is  considered 
quite  as  good  as  fresh  seed.  The  Colorado  Station  found  that 
prime  seed  lost  only  2.5  per  cent,  of  its  germinating  power  in 
ten  years.  Another  sample  showed  a  germinating  power  at 
six  years  of  93,  at  ten  years  of  y2,  and  at  sixteen  years  of  63 
per  cent.^    Dead  seeds,  instead  of  light  olive-green,  are  brown. 

204.  Varieties. — A  number  of  slightly  different  strains  of 
alfalfa  have  been  grown  by  experiment  stations,  while  Turkestan 
and   Grimm   alfalfa   have   been   tried   somewhat   more   widely. 

Among  these  may  be  mentioned:  American  strain  alfalfa,  a  hardy  sort 
recommended  for  northern  United  States;  French  alfalfa,  originally  from 
France,  but  developed  in  North  Dakota;  Oasis  alfalfa,  obtained  from  Tunis, 
North   Africa,   and   said   to   be   a   promising  drought-resistant   sort;    Solover   or 

1  Construct  a  light  wooden  frame,  12  inches  square  by  3  inches  deep,  and 
tack  over  the  bottom  20x20  mesh  steel  wire  cloth  made  of  No.  34  (W.  and  M. 
gauge)  wire.  Put  in  the  sieve  4  to  8  ounces  of  seed  and  shake  vigorously  for 
30  seconds.  Samples  of  alfalfa  seed  for  analysis  should  be  taken  from  the 
bottom  of  the  bag,  since  jarring  is  likely  to  cause  the  small  doddev  seeds  to 
fall   through    the   alfalfa    seed. 

2  Colorado  Sta.  Bui.  No.   110    (1906),  p.   11. 


l82  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

Utah  alfalfa,  grown  from  Utah  seed  and  said  to  be  a  hardy  and  vigorous 
grower  for  arid  and  semi-arid  regions;  Samarkand  alfalfa,  a  shorter,  more 
hardy  and   more  drought-resisting  variety. 

Turkestan  alfalfa  was  introduced  into  the  United  States  from 
the  arid  regions  of  Turkestan  in  Asia  in  1898  with  the  idea  of 
extending  the  northern  limit  of  alfalfa  growing  in  the  United 
States.  It  has  been  widely  distributed  and  tried,  but  reports 
are  somewhat  conflicting.  In  the  eastern  and  humid  states  it 
does  not  seem  to  be  superior  to  common  alfalfa.  Reports  from 
the  region  west  of  the  Mississippi  River  and  north  of  the 
fortieth  parallel  indicate  that  it  is  hardier  and  more  productive 
than  that  commonly  grown  there.  It  is  said  to  endure  drought 
better,  is  less  easily  affected  by  freezing,  and  gives  better  re- 
sults on  strongly  alkaline  soils.  It  is  claimed  that  the  root 
system  is  stronger,  that  stems  are  more  slender  and  more  leafy, 
thus  making  hay  of  finer  quality.  These  differences  are  not 
sufficiently  marked  to  be  noticed  by  the  casual  observer. 

Grimm  alfalfa  is  a  strain  that  has  descended  from  plants 
which  had  survived  about  20  years  in  the  vicinity  of  St.  Paul, 
Minnesota.  It  is,  therefore,  recommended  for  sowing  in  north- 
ern climates.  It  is  claimed  to  be  more  thrifty  and  more 
vigorous  than  common  alfalfa.  It  is  said  also  to  produce  seed 
more  abundantly. 

"Our  common  alfalfa  presents  two  types,  readily  recognized 
by  the  growers;  one  has  a  dark  green  color  and  narrow  leaves 
with  red  stems  and  usually  deep  violet  purple  flowers,  while  the 
other  has  green  stems  and  much  lighter  flowers.  The  former 
is  leafier  and  earlier  than  the  latter,  but  is  possibly  a  little  less 
vigorous  grower.  In  the  color  of  its  leaves  and  habit  of  plant 
the  former  resembles  the  Turkestan."  ^ 

205.  Distribution. — Alfalfa  is  cultivated  more  or  less  in  all 
countries  of  mild  climate  in  the  world.  It  is  extensively  culti- 
vated in  South  America. 

1  Colorado  Sta.  Bui.   (1906),  p.  4. 


LEGUMINOUS    FORAGE    CROPS  183 

"Alfalfa  occupies  one-sixth  the  cultivated  area  of  Argentina. 
It  has  caused  the  development  without  irrigation  of  vast  areas 
of  semi-arid  land  in  the  northern  and  western  portions  of 
Argentina.  It  is  estimated  that  about  eight  acres  of  natural 
pasture  are  required  to  supply  one  steer,  but  that  one  acre  of 
alfalfa  will  support  the  same  animal.  Besides  being  pastured, 
it  is  used  extensively  for  hay,  and  is  exported  in  no  incon- 
siderable quantities."  ^ 

Over  three- fourths  the  area  in  alfalfa  in  the  United  States 
in  1899  was  in  the  western  states,  while  over  98  per  cent,  was 
grown  west  of  the  Missouri  River.  Since  that  time  alfalfa 
growing  has  increased  somewhat  in  the  eastern  states.  Al- 
though the  distribution  is  in  large  measure  influenced  by  its 
adaptability,  it  is  also  to  some  extent  influenced  by  the  fact 
that  east  of  the  Missouri  River  timothy,  red  clover,  and  other 
grasses  and  clovers  thrive  relatively  better  than  they  do  west 
of  the  Missouri  River. 

206.  Adaptation.— Alfalfa  is  naturally  adapted  to  a  warm 
climate.  Kansas  raises  much  more  than  Nebraska,  South 
Dakota  much  less,  while  North  Dakota  raised  scarcely  none  at 
all  in  1899.  About  two-thirds  the  area  in  hay  in  New  Mexico 
was  in  alfalfa;  in  Colorado  one-half;  in  Wyoming  one-fifth; 
while  in  Montana  only  one-fourhundredth  part  of  the  area  in 
hay  was  in  alfalfa.  Owing  to  its  deep-root  system  alfalfa  is 
highly  drought-resisting  and  is  also  well  adapted  to  irrigation. 
An  excess  of  rainfall  as  well  as  an  excess  of  water  in  the  soil 
is  injurious.  It  thrives  better  in  an  alkaline  than  an  acid  soil, 
being'  fairly  alkaline  resistant.  The  sub-soil  is  more  important 
than  the  soil,  probably  because  of  the  effect  of  the  former  upon 
the  water  table  rather  than  because  of  its  permeability  to  the 
roots  or  the  plant  food  contained  therein,  although  both  of  the 
latter  are  important. 

'^The  Author:  How  to  Choose  a  Farm,  p.  358. 


l84  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

Calcareous  soils,  particularly  in  the  humid  regions,  are  espe- 
cially adapted  to  this  plant.  Hence  where  the  soil  and  the  sub- 
soil are  friable,  and  contain  a  large  quantity  of  lime,  alfalfa 
will  thrive  even  though  the  rainfall  be  as  high  as  35  to  40 
inches  annually.  Soils  of  the  Miami  series,  especially  Miami 
stony  loam  and  Miami  gravelly  loam,  are,  when  properly 
drained,  either  naturally  or  artificially,  well  adapted  to  alfalfa. 
In  general,  the  chocolate-colored  river  bottoms  and  maize  and 
oat  lands  rather  than  wheat  and  grass  lands  are  the  best 
adapted  to  alfalfa.     (C.  A.  115) 

207.  Conditions  Affecting  Success  with  Alfalfa.— The  con- 
trolling factors  in  the  culture  of  alfalfa  are  (i)  the  climate; 
(2)  the  character  of  the  soil;  (3)  the  treatment  of  the  soil, 
including  additions  of  lime  and  fertilizers;  (4)  inoculation 
with  alfalfa  bacteria;  (5)  the  kind  and  quantity  of  seed;  (6) 
the  time  of  seeding;  and   (7)  the  after  treatment  of  the  crop. 

In  the  western  states  where  alfalfa  is  chiefly  grown,  it  grows 
So  readily,  especially  when  irrigated,  that  seed  is  in  some  cases 
sown  without  any  preparation  of  the  soil,  except  the  removal 
of  the  sage  brush  by  hitching  a  team  at  each  end  of  a  railroad 
iron  and  dragging  it  over  the  ground.  Between  this  condition 
and  a  condition  that  requires  the  greatest  care  there  are  many 
degrees. 

208.  Treatment  of  the  Soil.— Alfalfa  is  not  stoloniferous  and 
cannot  spread  except  slightly  as  previously  indicated.  (198) 
It  does  not  take  possession  of  the  soil  and  crowd  out  other 
plants  as  may  Kentucky  blue  grass  or  white  clover.  On  the 
other  hand,  grasses  and  weeds  will  take  possession  of  the  land 
between  the  alfalfa  plants  and  reduce  their  growth.  It  happens 
that  those  soils  least  adapted  to  alfalfa  are  best  adapted  to 
grasses,  and  hence  on  such  soils  grasses  are  likely  to  obtain 
the  ascendency.  For  this  reason  the  previous  treatment  of 
the  soil  should  be  such  as  to  bring  about  the  most  vigorous 


LEGUMINOUS    FORAGE    CROPS  1 85 

growth  of  alfalfa  and  clean  the  soil  of  weeds  and  weed  seeds. 
This  is  best  brought  about  by  a  crop  which  has  been  heavily 
manured  with  stable  or  other  organic  manure  and  has  received 
thorough  inter-cultural  tillage.  In  Europe,  the  root  crops  fur- 
nish this  condition ;  in  New  York  State  peas  raised  for  the  can- 
ning factories  seem  to  furnish  the  ideal  condition;  while  in  the 
north  and  south  central  states  the  maize  crop  furnishes  the 
appropriate  previous  preparation. 

While  an  addition  of  stable  manure  at  the  rate  of  20  loads 
to  the  acre  just  before  preparing  the  land  for  alfalfa  is  ob- 
jectionable from  the  standpoint  of  adding  weed  seeds,  yet  ex- 
perience has  demonstrated  that  this  is  usually  good  practise 
and  upon  some  soils  essential.  On  many  soils  in  humid  sections 
lime  should  be  added  at  the  rate  of  1,000  to  3,000  pounds  an 
acre.  Assuming  the  land  to  have  been  in  an  inter-tilled  crop 
the  previous  year,  the  manure  may  be  spread  during  the  winter 
or  spring,  the  land  plowed  two  to  three  weeks,  and  the  lime 
added  about  a  week  before  seeding  and  immediately  worked 
into  the  soil  with  a  spring  tooth  or  disk  harrow. 

The  subsequent  preparation  of  the  soil  should  be  such  as 
thoroughly  to  incorporate  the  manure  and  the  lime  with  the  soil 
and  to  prepare  a  seed-bed  suitable  to  receive  and  germinate 
small  seeds.  This  may  be  accomplished  by  means  of  a  spring 
tooth  harrow  and  a  roller  or  wooden  drag.  (C.  A.  299)  A 
disk  harrow  is  also  desirable  in  order  to  secure  deeper  prepara- 
tion, but  is  not  essential. 

The  above  discussion  applies  more  especially  to  the  humid 
sections  of  the  United  States.  In  the  sub-humid  sections  there 
is  no  trouble  to  get  a  stand  if  the  soil  is  well  prepared.  Since 
the  incorporation  of  stable  manure  in  the  soil  is  likely  to  cause 
it  to  dry  out  too  rapidly  where  the  rainfall  is  deficient,  it  is 
better  to  top  dress  after  a  stand  has  been  secured.  West  of 
the  Missouri  River  no  lime  is  needed. 


l86  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

209.  Inoculation. — For  soils  only  moderately  well  adapted  to 
the  growth  of  alfalfa,  three  conditions  have  seemed  desirable 
if  not  essential  to  success:  (i)  the  application  of  an  abundance 
of  manure;  (2)  the  application  of  lime;  and  (3)  the  artificial 
introduction  of  bacteria  accustomed  to  growing  in  alfalfa  root- 
tubercles.  This  inoculation  can  be  successfully  accomplished 
by  putting  the  living  organisms  upon  the  seed  immediately  be- 
fore seeding,  or  by  sowing  upon  the  soil  just  before  seeding 
from  100  to  400  or  more  pounds,  of  soil  from  an  alfalfa 
field  where  the  tubercles  are  abundant.  (139)  The  latter 
method  has  been  more  largely  practised  and  has  been  found 
in  a  large  percentage  of  cases  to  improve  the  stand,  and  during 
the  first  season  at  least,  result  in  a  large  number  of  root- 
tubercles  of  a  more  vigorous  growth.  Generally  in  such  cases 
few,  if  any,  root-tubercles  occur  during  the  first  season  on  the 
uninoculated  soil,  while  they  are  abundant  on  the  inoculated 
soil,  the  relative  vigor  of  growth  depending  on  the  abundance 
of  inoculation  and  on  the  fertility,  presumably  especially  on 
the  abundance  of  soluble  nitrogen  in  the  soil.  The  more 
abundant  the  root-tubercles  the  greater  the  difference  in 
growth;  the  more  abundant  the  soluble  nitrogen  the  less  the 
difference  in  growth.  Generally  in  these  trials  the  uninoculated 
fields  or  plats  make  such  poor  growth  that  they  are  plowed  up 
at  the  end  of  the  first  year,  hence  there  are  few  observations 
on  the  relative  yields  obtained  the  second  season  from  the  in- 
oculated and  uninoculated  areas.  Results  at  the  Cornell  Station 
indicate  an  increased  yield  of  hay  from  the  inoculated  areas.' 
The  Alabama  Station  first  called  attention  to  the  increased  vigor 
of  alfalfa  through  inoculation  by  incorporating  in  the  soil  dust 
from  bur  clover  soil.  The  increase  in  hay  attributable  to  in- 
oculation was  336  per  cent.^ 

iNew  York  Cornell  Sta.  Bui.  No.  237    (1906),  p.   156. 
2  Alabama  Sta.  Bui.  No.  87   (1897),  p.  477. 


LEGUMINOUS   FORAGE   CROPS  1 87 

210.  After  Treatment. — For  its  best  growth  the  young  alfalfa 
plant  requires  an  abundance  of  soluble  nitrogen  in  the  soil. 
If  it  has  not  been  applied  by  means  of  stable  manure,  and  even 
if  stable  manure  has  been  used,  100  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda 
may  be  sown  two  to  three  weeks  after  alfalfa  has  been  seeded, 
if  the  alfalfa  lacks  at  this  time  a  deep  green  color.  If  sown 
without  grain  or  nurse  crop,  it  should  be  clipped  well  above 
the  crown  in  the  latter  part  of  June  or  early  in  July  in  order 
to  retard  the  growth  of  weeds  and  cause  the  alfalfa  to  produce 
a  larger  number  of  stems  and  thus  shade  the  ground  more 
fully.  Doubtless,  also,  this  procedure  helps  in  humid  climates 
to  che'ck  the  leaf-spot.  (218)  Subsequent  clippings  will 
depend  upon  the  growth  of  alfalfa  and  weeds,  but  usually  an- 
other should  be  given  sometime  in  August.  When  a  nurse 
crop  is  used,  the  cutting  of  this  answers  for  one  of  the  clip- 
pings. (216)  Old  meadows  are  sometimes  worked  with 
a  disk  harrow.  It  is  claimed  that  this  method  splits  the  crown 
and  thus  increases  the  number  of  independent  plants,  and 
thereby  increases  the  yield.  Old  meadows  also  respond  to  the 
application  of  stable  manure  spread  upon  the  land,  preferably 
with  a  manure  spreader  immediately  after  the  last  crop. 

211.  Irrigation. — The  soil  may  be  irrigated  before  seeding, 
but  after  the  plants  have  started  the  land  should  not  be  ir- 
rigated the  first  season,  because  the  soft  mud  may  cover  the 
small  plants  and  kill  them.  Usually  irrigation  is  not  necessary 
to  grow  the  first  cutting.  For  the  second  cutting,  the  land  may 
be  irrigated  immediately  after  the  first  crop  is  harvested,  or 
about  one  week  before  it  is  harvested,  which  is  believed  to  give 
the  best  results.  The  Utah  Station  has  shown  that  less  water 
is  required  to  grow  fair  crops  when  applied  at  intervals  of 
three  to  four  weeks.  The  Wyoming  Station  applied  2.22  acre- 
feet  of  water  during  the  season  to  alfalfa  when  the  rainfall 
was  about  1.5  inches.    The  Colorado  Station  recommends  20  to 


l88  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

24  inches  of  water  to  produce  the  three  crops  usually  grown. 
No  rule,  however,  can  be  laid  down  as  to  the  amount  of  water 
required,  since  this  will  depend  on  the  climate,  soil,  and  position 
of  the  ground  water.  Indeed,  in  many  instances  the  ground 
water  at  a  depth  of  from  four  to  twelve  feet  constantly  fed  by 
seepage  from  rivers  or  canals  is  sufficient  for  the  growth  of 
alfalfa  without  irrigation.  The  water  is  usually  applied  by  the 
system  known  as  flooding,  from  two  to  ten  hours  being  required. 
The  amount  should  not  be  sufficient  to  allow  pools  of  water  to 
stand  after  the  water  is  turned  off,  else  the  alfalfa  will  be  killed. 

212.  Rotations. — The  economic  duration  of  an  alfalfa  field 
varies  greatly  with  climate  and  soil.  The  author  saw  a  field 
in  Nevada  which  had  grown  alfalfa  18  years  continuously  with- 
out re-seeding  or  the  addition  of  seed.  Grass  was  somewhat 
abundant,  but  satisfactory  crops  of  alfalfa  were  still  being 
harvested.  Usually  other  things  equal,  the  largest  yields  are 
obtained  the  second  and  third  years  (third  and  fourth  from 
seeding),  while  thereafter  there  is  a  decrease  in  yield  from 
the  gradual  dying  out  of  plants.  The  rotation  practised  around 
Greeley,  Colorado,  where  potato  growing  is  an  important  in- 
dustry, is  about  as  follows:  potatoes  two  years;  wheat  one 
year;  barley  or  oats,  with  which  the  alfalfa  is  seeded,  one  year; 
alfalfa  three  to  four  years.^  Wing  recommends  for  humid 
sections:  maize  one  year;  barley,  with  which  alfalfa  is  seeded, 
one  year;  alfalfa  four  years.*  For  eastern  Kansas  five  or  six 
years  of  alfalfa  followed  by  cereals  in  rotation  for  twenty  years 
is  recommended.  By  having  five  fields,  one  field  or  orie-fifth 
of  the  farm  may  be  in  alfalfa  all  the  time. 

213.  Quantity  of  Seed. — While  25  plants  to  the  square  foot 
is  considered  an  excellent  stand  for  a  new  seeding,  and  in  old 
meadows  good  yields  of  hay  may  be  obtained  with  five  plants 

lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook   1904,  p.   313. 

*  Pennsylvania   State   Dept.   Agr.    Bui.   No.   129. 


LEGUMINOUS  FORAGE  CROPS  1 89 

to  the  square  foot,  yet  alfalfa  is  perhaps  seldom  injured  by 
heavy  seeding,  but  often  it  would  be  better  if  more  seed  had 
been  used,  although  the  practise  varies  from  15  to  30  pounds 
per  acre  or  from  75  to  150  seeds  per  square  foot.  Probably 
in  no  case  should  less  than  20  pounds  per  acre  be  sown,  except 
where  grown  for  seed.  For  seed  it  is  customary  to  sow  from 
12  to  16  pounds  per  acre.  When  grown  for  hay  the  only  ad- 
vantage to  be  gained  in  sowing  20  rather  than  30  pounds  of 
seed  is  the  saving  in  the  cost  of  the  seed.  Thick  seeding  is 
an  advantage,  because  the  alfalfa  stands  better,  the  hay  is  a 
better  quality  and  weeds  are  subdued. 

214.  Time  of  Seeding. — Assuming  suitable  weather  condi- 
tions, alfalfa  may  be  sown  any  time  during  the  growing  season, 
— say  between  April  i  and  October  i.  Generally  speaking,  the 
best  time  is  during  the  month  of  April;  in  some  sections  the 
second  best  time  is  during  August  or  September,  depending  on 
locality,  while  the  poorest  months  are  June  and  July.  In 
regions  having  very  light  rainfall  in  autumn  seeding  should  be 
done  in  the  spring.  Alfalfa,  being  a  warm  weather  plant, 
should  not  be  seeded  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  clovers.  The 
best  time  for  sowing  alfalfa  is  midway  between  the  best  time 
for  sowing  oats  and  that  for  planting  maize.  One  reason  why 
satisfactory  results  are  not  obtained  in  sowing  with  oats  is 
that  the  seeding  is  apt  to  be  done  to  suit  the  oats  and  not  to 
suit  the  alfalfa. 

215.  Method  of  Seeding.— The  depth  of  seeding  must  depend 
on  the  soil  and  climate,  the  drier  the  climate  and  the  sandier 
the  soil  the  deeper  the  seeding.  In  general,  the  seed  should  be 
covered  deeper  than  red  clover.  In  humid  climates,  good  results 
are  obtained  by  sowing  with  the  seeder  attachment  to  the  grain 
drill,  adjusting  the  spouts  so  as  to  deposit  the  seed  in  front 
of  the  hoes.  In  the  more  arid  sections,  the  grain  drill  itself 
is  used,  the  alfalfa  being  mixed  with  soil,  maize  meal  or  bran 


190  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

to  cause  the  seed  to  feed  evenly.  In  this  case  the  seed  is 
covered  from  i  inch  to  1.5  inches  deep.  One-half  the  seed  is 
sometimes  sown  one  way  and  then  the  other  half  crossways. 
Seed  may  also  be  sown  broadcast  and  land  harrowed  with 
smoothing  harrow.     (C.  A.  299) 

The  New  Jersey  Station  sowed  30  pounds  of  seed  broadcast 
and  15  pounds  of  seed  with  drill,  and  obtained  practically  the 
same  yield  of  hay  the  following  year — 6.5  and  6.7  tons  an  acre 
respectively.^ 

216.  Nurse  Crop. — The  sowing  of  a  grain  crop  with  the 
alfalfa  is  probably  seldom  of  any  advantage  to  the  alfalfa,  and 
may  be  a  disadvantage  when  the  moisture  or  plant  food  is  likely 
to  be  deficient.  Experience  has  shown  that  barley  is  a  much 
better  crop  to  sow  with  alfalfa  than  is  oats.  Barley  exhausts 
ihe  soil  less  of  water  and  is  harvested  earlier  than  oats.  Where 
oats  is  sown  with  alfalfa  it  should  be  sown  at  the  rate  of  a 
bushel  to  the  acre,  and  must  be  harvested  when  coming  into 
bloom  for  hay.  Permitting  oats  to  stand  until  ripe  almost  al- 
ways results  in  failure  of  the  alfalfa,  at  least  in  humid  climates. 
When  sowing  oats  with  alfalfa,  the  time  of  seeding  should  be 
chosen  to  suit  the  alfalfa  and  not  to  suit  the  oats.  Alfalfa  is 
seldom  sown  in  the  spring  on  wheat  that  was  sown  the  previous 
fall,  as  is  the  general  custom  with  clover. 

Alfalfa  is  seldom  sown  with  any  grass  or  clover,  although 
grasses  are  sometimes  recommended  where  alfalfa  is  to  be 
pastured,  since  it  reduces  the  danger  of  bloating.  For  this 
purpose,  brome  grass  probably  gives  the  best  results  in  sub- 
humid  sections.  The  Nebraska  Station  found  that  when  used 
for  pasture  brome  grass  nearly  succeeded  in  crowding  out  the 
alfalfa  at  the  end  of  three  years,  when  sown  in  equal  amounts, 
but  when  used  for  meadow  the  alfalfa  held  its  own.^  Idaho 
Station   reports   good   results    for   meadows   with    mixtures   of 

iNew  Jersey  Sta.  Rpt.   1890,  pp.   156-8. 
2  Nebraska  Sta.  Bui.  No.  84   (1904). 


LEGUMINOUS   FORAGE   CROPS  I9I 

orchard  grass  and  alfalfa,  rye  and  alfalfa,  and  tall  oat  grass 
and  alfalfa/  Orchard  grass  is  considered  desirable  because 
the  orchard  grass  is  cut  soon  enough  to  prevent  its  becoming 
unpalatable,  and  because  its  habit  of  growth  is  such  as  to  crowd 
the  alfalfa  less  than  other  grasses.     (86) 

217.  Weeds. — Since  the  first  cutting  of  alfalfa  is  so  early, 
and  since  the  time  between  cutting  is  so  short,  most  annual 
and  biennial  weeds  common  to  other  meadows  are  prevented 
from  going  to  seed  and  are  thus  eradicated.  Only  those  peren- 
nials which  produce  seed  before  the  first  cutting  of  alfalfa,  like 
dandelion,  and  perennials  which  are  more  or  less  stolonifer- 
gus,  like  some  of  the  grasses,  become  a  serious  pest  in  alfalfa 
meadows.  To  this,  however,  there  are  some  exceptions.  The 
wild  barleys  (Hordeum  jubatum  L.)  and  (H.  murinum  L.), 
which  are  annual  grasses,  are  most  serious  weeds  in  alfalfa 
meadows  in  western  states,  as  they  are  in  other  cultivated  crops. 
This,  however,  is  not  so  much  due  to  their  abundance  or  injury 
to  alfalfa  as  it  is  that  the  barbed  awns  of  these  plants  lodge  in 
the  mouths  and  throats  of  animals,  producing  bad  sores  and 
thus  decreasing  the  feeding  value  of  hay  that  has  become 
infested  with  them. 

While  certain  other  plants  of  the  grass  family  are  a  menace 
to  the  growth  of  alfalfa,  alfalfa  hay  is  usually  free  from  weeds 
that  are  objectionable  for  forage  purposes.  Where  alfalfa 
becomes  grassy  passing  over  the  field  both  ways  with  a  disk 
harrow,  set  so  as  not  to  turn  the  soil  too  much,  immediately 
after  the  crop  has  been  harvested  is  said  to  help  to  keep  these 
weeds  in  check.  Some  of  the  weeds  are  destroyed  while  the 
alfalfa  is  stimulated.  The  best  results  with  this  method  have 
been  obtained  on  friable  soils  in  sub-humid  sections. 

218.  Fungous  Diseases. — The  most  commonly  distributed, 
and   probably   the    most   injurious,    fungous   disease    on    alfal- 

1  Idaho  Sta.  Bui.  No.  33   (1902). 


192 


THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


fa  is  the  leaf-spot  {Pscudopcziza  medicaginis  (Lib.)  Sacc). 
It  is  much  more  injurious  in  moist  than  in  dry  climates.  The 
evidences  of  it  are  usually  first  seen  in  the  turning  yellow  of 
the  lower  leaves.     If  these  leaves  are  closely  examined,  they 

will  be  seen  to  contain  numerous 
small  brownish-yellow  blotches 
in  the  center  of  which  is  a  still 
smaller  black  circle  of  fruiting 
cups,  each  containing  eight  egg- 
shaped  or  oblong  ascospores. 
The  plant  becomes  infested  by 
these  ascospores  floating  in  the 
air,  particularly  if  the  air  is 
moist.  The  disease  spreads  with 
great  rapidity,  hence  the  desir- 
ability of  mowing  the  crop  as 
soon  as  attack  begins  to  man- 
ifest itself.  (225)  Experiments 
with  fungicides  and  with  fer- 
tilizers at  the  Cornell  Station 
gave  negative  results.  Root-rot  {Ozonium  Sp.),  a  fungous 
disease  affecting  cotton  and  other  plants,  also  sometimes  affects 
alfalfa  when  it  is  grown  in  regions  where  cotton  occurs. 

219.  Insects. — Few  insects  attacking  alfalfa  exclusively  or 
even  chiefly  have  been  reported.  The  principal  insect  enemy 
of  alfalfa  in  the  western  states  is  the  ever-present  grass- 
hopper. The  remedy  against  grasshoppers  in  general  is  said 
to  be  deep  plowing  in  the  fall  to  bury  the  eggs  and  spring 
harrowing  to  destroy  them.  When  the  alfalfa  field  is  attacked 
the  Nevada  Station  recommends  the  use  of  the  following 
mixture  just  after  the  first  crop  is  harvested:  Paris  green  i, 
common  salt  2,  fresh  horse  dung  60  pounds.  This  mixture  is 
to  be  scattered  over  the  field  when  the  hoppers  are  thickest, 
in  the  morning  while  the  soil  is  still  wet  from  the  first  irriga- 


Alfalfa  leaf  attacked  by  leaf-spot 
Natural  size 


LEGUMINOUS  FORAGE  CROPS  I93 

tion/  By  means  of  the  hopper-dozer  the  Colorado  Station 
caught  in  one  day  in  a  six-acre  field  nine  bushels  of  grass  hop- 
pers, containing  about  30,000  grasshoppers  in  each  bushel. 
Winter  and  early  spring  disking  of  alfalfa  fields  will  also 
destroy  many  grasshopper  eggs. 

220.  Animals. — The  pocket  gopher  is,  in  the  western  states, 
the  most  serious  pest  with  which  the  alfalfa  raiser  has  to  con- 
tend. It  destroys  the  alfalfa  by  feeding  upon  the  roots,  while 
the  burrows  seriously  interfere  with  harvesting.  Ground- 
squirrels,  prairie  dogs,  and  field  mice  are  also  troublesome.  Many 
more  or  less  successful  methods  of  combating  these  pests  are 
employed,  such  as  poisoning  with  strychnine,  trapping,  shooting, 
and  suffocating  with  bisulphide  of  carbon. 

221.  Pocket  Gophers  (Geomytdae),  comprising  two  genera,  Geotnys  and 
Thomomys,  and  33  species,  of  which  the  prairie  gopher  {Geomys  bursarius 
Shaw),  also  called  red  pocket  gopher,  is  the  most  important.  In  color  the 
gophers  are  gray,  black,  or  brown,  cinnamon  or  pinkish-brown  prevailing;  the 
gophers  of  southern  Georgia,  Florida  and  Alabama  have  an  indistinct  median 
stripe  along  the  back.  They  are  the  length  of  a  small  rat,  but  twice  as  thick, 
have  large  cheek  pouches  opening  outside  the  mouth,  and  long  claws  on  the 
fore  feet,  adapting  them  to  an  underground  burrowing  life.  They  live  singly 
except  during  the  breeding  season.  Their  natural  enemies  are  the  weasel  and 
the  gopher  snake. 

222.  Spermophilus  (meaning  "seed  lover"),  belonging  to  the  squirrel 
family  (Sciuridae),  and  comprising  about  73  species  and  sub-species  in  the 
western  states,  two  of  which  are  found  east  of  the  Mississippi  River.  The 
spermophiles  are  closely  related  to  the  chipmunks  and  form  the  connecting 
link  between  the  squirrels  and  the  marmots.  The  most  widely  distributed  is 
the  thirteen-lined  spermophile  (Spermophilus  tridecemlineatus  Mitchell),  car- 
rying on  the  back  six  longitudinal  buff  bands  and  seven  brown  bands, 
each  of  the  latter  containing  a  row  of  small  white  spots.  They  vary  in  color 
from  gray  to  brown,  have  cheek  pouches  and  are  about  the  size  of  the  pocket 
gopher.  The  chipmunk  (Tatnias  striatus  L.),  also  called  ground  squirrel  and 
ground  hackee,  belongs  to  the  same  family  {Sciuridae),  and  though  it  may 
in  some  instances  prey  on  roots,  its  favorite  food  consists  of  nuts,  berries, 
tomatoes,  and  pome  fruits.  A  number  of  the  Sciuridae  consume  vast  quantities 
of  destructive  insects.  The  natural  enemies  of  these  animals  are  coyotes, 
foxes,  badgers,  skunks,  hawks,  and  owls. 

1  Nevada  Sta.  Bui.  No.  57   (1904). 


194  THE   FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

223.  Prairie  Marmots  {Cynomys  ludovicianus  Ord.),  also  called  prairie 
dogs,  belong  to  the  squirrel  family  (Sciuridac),  though  they  are  much  larger 
than  the  species  described  above.  They  are  more  closely  related  to  the  wood- 
chuck  or  ground  hog  than  to  the  other  Sciuridae.  They  are  the  most 
gregarious  of  the  whole  family.  Their  natural  enemies  are  wolves,  foxes,  and 
rattlesnakes.  A  spoonful  of  poisoned  wheat  placed  in  the  mouth  of  each 
burrow  is  widely  used  to  combat  them. 

224.  Meadow  Mouse  (Microtus  pennsylvanicus  Ord.)  and  prairie  meadow 
mouse  (M.  austerus  Le  Conte)  are  two  important  species  of  the  mouse  family 
(Muridae),  which  comprises  66  species  and  sub-species  of  continental  range. 
They  are  short-eared,  short-tailed,  thick-set  and  6  to  6.5  inches  long;  reddish- 
brown  above  and  whitish  below.  They  inhabit  marshes,  meadows,  pastures, 
lawns,  orchards,  gardens,  and  cornfields.  Their  natural  enemies  are  pickerel 
fish,  cats,  foxes,  weasels,  crows,  marsh  hawks,  hen  hawks,  winter  hawks,  while 
they  form  the  chief  diet  of  owls.^ 

225.  Time  of  Cutting  for  Hay. — The  number  of  cuttings  will 
depend  on  climate  and  soil  and  the  stage  at  which  it  is  cut,  and 
ranges  from  two  to  five  or  more  cuttings.  Probably  three 
cuttings  are  the  most  common.  Between  the  39th  to  the  42d 
parallels  of  latitude  in  the  United  States,  the  usual  period  is 
about  as  follows :  first  cutting  May  25  to  June  5 ;  second  cutting 
July  I  to  20;  third  cutting  August  20  to  October  i.  It  is  gen- 
erally thought  advisable  to  leave  a  fair  growth  of  alfalfa  upon 
the  land  when  it  goes  into  winter  quarters.  In  the  sub-humid 
regions  and  in  the  irrigated  regions  the  practise  is  to  cut  when 
the  alfalfa  is  coming  into  blossom,  estimated  to  be  from  one- 
tenth  to  one-third  the  total  flowers.  This  is  not  a  safe  rule  for 
humid  climates.  The  failure  in  humid  climates  often  results 
from  a  failure  to  cut  alfalfa  soon  enough,  particularly  the  first 
cutting.  The  crop  should  be  cut  as  soon  as  the  lower  leaves 
begin  to  turn  yellow,  even  though  few,  if  any,  flowers  show, 
as  is  usually  the  case.  In  humid  regions  alfalfa  is  subject  to 
spot  disease,  and  if  the  plants  are  left  to  stand  after  the  lower 
leaves  turn  yellow,  in  a  short  time  most  of  the  leaves  become 
affected  and  the  crop  is  of  little  value  for  hay.  Often  growers 
are    tempted    to    leave    an    unsatisfactory    growth    with    the 

iln  this  connection,  see  Minnesota  Sta.  Bui.  No.  88   (1904),  pp.  144-165. 


LEGUMINOUS  FORAGE  CROPS  I95 

hope  that  it  may  improve,  not  realizing  that  the  crop  may  be 
destroyed  by  disease  and  not  realizing  that  the  second  crop  can- 
not be  obtained  until  the  first  crop  has  been  cut.  The  cutting 
of  alfalfa  at  just  the  proper  time  is  one  of  the  most  imperative 
factors  in  alfal,fa  growing. 

226.  Curing  Alfalfa  Hay. — Alfalfa  is  a  difficult  crop  to  cure, 

especially  in  humid  climates.  Its  succulent  stems  cure  slowly 
and,  if  handled  with  tedder,  hay  rake,  or  other  tools  during  the 
process  of  drying,  many  of  the  leaves  fall  off,  reducing  the 
weight  and  reducing  the  quality  in  still  greater  degree.  The 
first  and  last  cutting  come  at  a  time  of  year  when  the  weather 
conditions  are  not  favorable  to  curing  any  hay.  Methods 
of  curing  must  be  practised,  which  will  involve  the 
least  possible  handling,  especially  after  the  hay  has  become 
practically  cured.  Winnowing  by  means  of  the  clover  buncher 
will  reduce  the  handling.  In  the  western  states  the  side  deliv- 
ery rake  is  widely  used,  producing  somewhat  the  same  effect  as 
the  hay  tedder.  If  teddered  at  all,  it  should  be  done  just  as  soon 
as  the  alfalfa  has  become  wilted.  In  humid  climates  it  should  be 
raked  and  put  in  cocks  when  quite  green.  The  cocks  are  not 
greatly  injured  by  rain  when  put  up  in  this  way  and  will  gen- 
erally cure  without  molding,  except  where  the  hay  is  in  contact 
with  the  ground.  The  cocks  must  be  turned  or  spread  out  and 
rebuilt  as  often  as  necessary  to  prevent  moldings  which  will 
depend  on  the  condition  of  the  alfalfa  and  of  the  weather. 
In  the  western  states  where  there  is  no  danger  of  rainfall  the 
alfalfa  is  hauled  directly  to  the  stack  from  windrow  by  means  of 
sweep  rakes,  commonly  called  "buck  rakes"  or  "go-devils."  (39) 
As  a  preventive  measure  for  molding,  the  Kansas  Station  recom- 
mends that  the  hay  be  stacked  or  stored  with  alternate  layers  of 
straw  in  the  proportion  of  two  loads  of  alfalfa  to  one  of  straw.^ 

227.  Alfalfa  Silage. — The  difficulty  of  curing,  especially  of 

1  Kansas  Sta.  Bui.  No.  85   (1899),  p.  9. 


196  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

the  first  and  last  crops,  has  led  to  silaging.  The  last  crop,  being 
ready  to  harvest  at  the  time  maize  is  being  put  into  the  silo, 
may  be  mixed  with  the  latter,  one  load  of  alfalfa  to  two  loads 
of  maize,  both  being  put  through  the  feed  cutter.  When  treated 
in  this  way,  the  alfalfa  and  maize  both  keep  well  and  the 
mixture  is  well  liked  by  cattle.  While  alfalfa  can  be  preserved 
in  the  silo  alone,  the  practise  is  not  generally  looked  upon 
favorably,  and  since  alfalfa  silage  is  not  more  palatable  than 
alfalfa  hay,  there  is  nothing  to  be  gained  by  silaging  except 
when  curing  into  hay  is  impossible. 

228.  Harvesting  Alfalfa  Seed. — Alfalfa  seed  is  produced 
principally  in  western  Kansas,  eastern  Colorado,  northern  Utah 
and  southern  Idaho.  In  humid  climates  of  the  United  States 
alfalfa  produces  seed  sparingly,  which  is  usually  small,  wrinkled 
and  poorly  developed.  Even  in  the  regions  above  mentioned 
seed  is  principally  produced  by  "dry  farming."  If,  when  ir- 
rigated, too  much  water  is  applied  during  the  time  of  flowering 
and  after,  the  strength  of  the  plant  goes  to  the  production  of 
foliage  rather  than  seed.  The  seed  is  produced  usually  from 
the  second  crop,  and  is  harvested  in  September  or  as  soon  as 
the  majority  of  the  pods  have  turned  brown.  The  self-rake 
reaper,  the  self-binder  and  the  buncher  are  used,  the  former 
most  commonly.  When  cured  it  is  gathered  from  the  piles  by 
means  of  barley  forks  and  thrown  into  a  header  box  or  upon 
a  hay  rack  whose  bottom  has  been  covered  by  heavy  ducking. 
It  is  then  threshed  directly  from  the  load  or  placed  in  small 
stacks  and  threshed  later.  A  regular  grain  separator  may  be 
used,  but  the  huller  is  better.  The  regular  clover  huller  may 
be  used,  but  ordinarily  it  is  modified  slightly  for  alfalfa.  As 
high  a  speed  is  not  required  to  hull  alfalfa  seed  as  clover  seed, 
and  is  objectionable,  since  the  stems  are  more  brittle  and  thus 
broken  up  unduly.  The  amount  of  seed  produced  varies  ac- 
cording both  to  season  and  soil  from  i  to  15  or  even  20  bushels 
an  acre,  perhaps  2  to  6  bushels  being  the  most  common. 


LEGUMINOUS    FORAGE   CROPS 


197 


229.  Value. — The  value  of  alfalfa  where  it  can  be  success- 
fully grown  consists  in  the  large  yield  of  palatable  hay  con- 
taining a  large  percentage  of  protein.  Thus  the  following  table 
based  on  the  Twelfth  Census  and  American  analyses  and  diges- 
tion experiments  shows  the  importance  of  alfalfa: 

Comparison  of  Hays  Grown  in  the  United  States  in  1899 


Hay 

Acreage 
thousands 

Total 

yield 

thousand 

tons 

Yield 

per  acre 

tons 

Digestible 
nutrients 
per  acre 
lb. 

Digestible 

protein 

per  acre 

lb. 

Alfalfa     . 
Red    clover 
Cultivated  grasses '^ 

2,094 

4,104 

31,302 

5,221 

5,167 

35,624 

2.5 
1.3 
1.1 

2,673 
1,214 
1,091 

609 

177 

62 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  1899  there  was  produced  in  the  United 
States  about  the  same  quantity  of  alfalfa  hay  as  of  red  clover 
hay  off  of  about  one-half  the  area;  that  the  yield  of  digestible 
nutrients  was  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  times  that  of  red 
clover,  while  the  digestible  protein  an  acre  in  alfalfa  was  three 
to  four  times  that  of  red  clover  and  about  ten  times  that  of 
the  cultivated  grasses  on  the  basis  of  the  composition  and  diges- 
tibility of  timothy  hay. 

Since  alfalfa  is  a  perennial,  it  reduces  the  labor  of  caring 
for  a  given  area  of  land  to  the  minimum.  It  is  not  as  well 
adapted  to  short  rotations  as  clovers,  since  the  cost  of  securing 
a  seeding  is  greater,  both  because  of  the  greater  cost  of  the  seed 
and,  in  case  no  nurse  crop  is  raised,  because  of  the  loss  of  a 
crop.  It  requires  what  is  recognized  to  be  a  fertile  soil  for 
staple  crops  and  cannot,  therefore,  be  used  alone  in  improving 
worn-out  soils.  When  grown  on  good  soils  with  plenty  of 
plant  food  added,  its  large,  deep-growing  roots,  rich  in  nitrogen 
and  minerals,  leave  the  soil  in  an  improved  condition. 

*  Assumed  for  the  purposes  of  comparison  to  be  timothy. 


198  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

230.  Feeding  Value. — Alfalfa  hay  is  eaten  readily  by,  and 
can  be  fed  with  good  results  to,  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  brood 
sows,  and  laying  hens.  By  introducing  alfalfa  hay  into  the 
ration,  the  amount  of  grain  necessary  for  milch  cows  and  for 
fattening  cattle  and  sheep  may  be  greatly  reduced.  The  com- 
position and  digestibility  of  alfalfa  are  quite  similar  to  that 
of  bran.  The  Tennessee  Station  found  that  one  pound  of  wheat 
bran  should  be  replaced  by  1.5  pounds  of  alfalfa  when  fed  to 
milch  cows.^  While  cattle  and  sheep  may  be  fattened  on  alfalfa 
hay  alone,  they  do  not  on  this  ration  get  that  finish  which  in 
the  present  markets  commands  the  highest  price.  Alfalfa  hay 
is  not  itself  a  proper  ration,  because  of  its  coarseness  and  the 
large  proportion  of  protein.  Maize  grain  and  barley  meal 
furnish  the  easily  digestible  carbohydrates  which  are  needed 
to  complete  the  ration.  Where  they  can  be  economically  grown, 
mangel-wurzels  are  useful  for  the  same  reason  as  well  as 
furnishing  a  succulent  food. 

The  Maryland  Station  found  that  more  milk  was  produced 
with  a  ration  of  alfalfa  hay  and  seven  pounds  of  maize  meal 
than  with  maize  silage  and  a  mixture  of  three  pounds  of  malt 
sprouts,  one  pound  each  of  linseed  meal,  gluten  meal  and  maize 
meal.^  The  Utah  Station  reports  as  the  result  of  six  tests  that 
alfalfa-fed  horses  had  a  better  appearance,  and  it  was  not  so 
difficult  to  maintain  their  weight  as  when  fed  on  timothy.^ 

Alfalfa  does  not  stand  pasturing  well.  While  it  may  be  used 
for  all  classes  of  domestic  animals,  it  has  been  found  pre- 
eminently useful  only  with  swine  and  poultry.  The  danger  from 
bloat  is  believed  to  be  even  greater  than  with  red  clover.  It 
is  better  adapted  to  soiling  purposes  than  to  pasture,  since  reg- 
ular and  frequent  clipping  enhances  its  vigor  and  the  green 
material  can  be  fed  without  injurious  results.     It  is  especially 

1  Tennessee  Sta.  Bui.  Vol.  XVII   (1904),  No.  4. 

2  Maryland  Sta.  Bui.  No.  98   (1904). 

3  Utah  Sta.  Bui.  No.  11  (1902). 


LEGUMINOUS    FORAGE    CROPS  199 

adapted  to  those  regions  in  the  southern  states  where  it  can 
be  grown,  both  on  account  of  the  length  of  the  growing  season 
and  because  pastures  of  all  kinds  are  less  successful  there. 

231.  History. — Alfalfa  has  probably  been  used  for  hay  longer 
than  any  other  cultivated  plant.  The  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans  used  it,  and  it  is  the  only  forage  crop  now  extensively 
grown  in  America  which  was  cultivated  by  them,  except  millet. 
It  was  imported  into  Greece  from  Media  during  the  war  with 
the  Persians  about  476  B.  C.  It  was  introduced  into  North 
America  under  the  name  of  lucerne  by  the  first  colonists.  It 
was  tried  over  and  over  again  in  New  England  and  the  Atlantic 
states  during  the  150  years  which  elapsed  prior  to  the  Revolu- 
tion. While  it  has  been  grown  in  Onandaga  County,  New  York, 
since  1812,  probably  continuously,  alfalfa  did  not  attract  much 
attention  until  introduced  into  California  from  the  western 
coast  of  South  America  about  the  middle  of  the  last  century. 
In  1873  Henry  Miller  introduced  some  seed  directly  from  Chile 
and  sowed  it  upon  his  ranch  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley.  Sub- 
sequently the  firm  of  Miller  and  Lux  grazed  over  100,000  head 
of  cattle  and  more  than  that  number  of  sheep  on  alfalfa  pasture 
in  the  summer  and  fed  them  alfalfa  hay  in  the  winter.  From 
this  object  lesson  of  the  great  value  of  alfalfa  has  spread  the 
present  culture  of  it  in  the  United  States. 

II.     SAND     LUCERNE 

232.  Sand  Lucerne  {Medicago  media  Pers.)  closely  resembles  alfalfa  in 
appearance,  habit  of  growth,  and  nutritive  qualities.  (196)  It  may  be 
distinguished  from  alfalfa  by  its  more  spreading  habit,  by  its  flowers  ranging 
from  purple  to  lemon-yellow  with  many  intermediate  shades,  and  by  its  pods, 
which  are  in  about  three-fourths  of  one  coil  instead  of  two  to  four  coils  as 
in  alfalfa.  The  seeds  are  about  four-fifths  the  size  of  alfalfa  seeds.  The 
Michigan  Station  reports  that  sand  lucerne  is  able  to  withstand  the  severe 
winters  of  the  Michigan  climate,  while  alfalfa  is  easily  killed.  On  a  dry, 
sandy  plat  of  soil  the  average  yield  during  four  years  at  the  Michigan  Station 
was  at   the   rate   of   over   five   tons   of   cured   hay   per  acre.^     Three   and    four 

1  Michigan  Sta.  Bui.  No.  198   (1902),  p.  ISO. 


200  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

cuttings  a  seasan  were  obtained.  Thus  far  only  imported  seed  is  to  be  had. 
Attempts  to  produce  seed  in  Michigan  have  proved  unsuccessful.  Sowing 
alone  in  early  May  at  the  rate  of  15  pounds  of  seed  an  acre  is  recommended. 

233.  Collateral  Reading. — F.  D.  Coburn:  The  Book  of  Alfalfa,  p.  336. 
New  York:   Orange  Judd   Co.,    1906. 

Thomas  Shaw:  Clovers  and  How  to  Grow  Them,  pp.  114-193;  333-7.  New 
York:   Orange  Judd  Co.,    1906. 

Henry  Wallace:  Clover  Culture,  pp.  30-44.  Des  Moines:  Homestead  Co., 
1892. 

F.  G.  Stebler  and  C.  Schroter:  The  Best  Forage  Plants,  pp.  145-155.  Lon- 
don:  David  Nutt,   1889. 

F.  H.  Hillman:  Clover  Seeds  and  Their  Impurities.  Nevada  Station  Bui. 
No.  47   (1900),  pp.  7-12. 

Joseph  E.  Wing:  Alfalfa  Culture  in  Humid  Lands.  Pennsylvania  State 
Dept.   Agr.   Bui.   No.    129,    1904. 

E.  Brown:  Alfalfa  Seed.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  No.   194,  1904. 

R.  Harcourt:  Composition  of  Lucerne  as  Affected  by  Maturity.  In  Ontario 
Agr.  Col.  and  Expt.  Farm  Report   1898,  pp.  23-9. 

R.  Harcourt:  Lucerne  or  Alfalfa.     Ontario  Agr.  Col.  Bui.  No.   Ill,    1900. 

A.  S.  Hitchcock:  Alfalfa  Growing  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  No. 
215,    1905. 

W.   P.   Headden:   Alfalfa.     Colorado   Station   Bui.   No.   110,    1906. 

Geo.  L.  Clothier:  Alfalfa.  In  Kansas  State  Bd.  Agr.  Report  (March,  1900), 
pp.  7-41. 

S.  J.  Hunter:  Alfalfa  Culture  and  Insect  Life.  In  Kansas  State  Bd.  Agr. 
Report   (March,   1900),  pp.  41-51. 

J.  L.  Stone  et  al.:  Alfalfa.  New  York  Cornell  Station  Bui.  No.  211  (1906), 
pp.    141-171. 

Andrew  M.  Soule  and  Meade  Ferguson:  The  Inoculation  and  Cultivation 
of  Alfalfa.     Virginia  Station  Bui.  Vol.  XIII   (1905),  No.  5. 


XI 


LEGUMINOUS  FORAGE  CROPS 


I.     BLACK    MEDIC 

234.  Description. — Black  medic  or 
yellow  trefoil  (Medicago  lupulina  L.) 
is  in  appearance  similar  to  alfalfa, 
but  is  smaller  in  all  its  parts.  Its 
stems  are  spreading,  four  inches  to 
two  feet  in  length,  and,  unless  grown 
with  other  crops,  seldom  reaching 
above  nine  to  twelve  inches  high.  It 
bears  small  roundish  heads  of  yellow 
flowers,  which,  as  they  ripen,  become 
a  spike-like  cluster  of  almost  jet  black, 
one-seeded,  somewhat  kidney-shaped, 
strongly  veined  pods.  These  pods, 
with  the  calyx  persisting,  easily  fall 
off,  but  the  pods  do  not  open  readily, 
hence  black  medic  seed  is  quite  likely 
to  contain  seeds  in  which  the  very 
characteristic  pods  have  not  been  re- 
moved. Black  medic  begins  to  flower 
in  May  and,  if  not  cut,  will  continue 
for  a  couple  of  months,  the  lower 
flower  clusters  becoming  fully  ripe 
while  the  upper  ones  are  still  forming. 
The  tap  root  grows  about  a  foot  in  Black  medic,  showing  mature  clus- 
depth;   otherwise  it  is  similar  to  al-      *"''"  °f  ^^^"^^  ^^^^^  °"*-'l*" 

^  natural  size.    From  photo  taken 

falfa,   only   smaller.  June  28  in  central  New  York. 


20I 


202  THE   FORx\GE   Ax\D    FIBER    CROrS    IN    AMERICA 

The  plant  is  sometimes  confused  with  yellow  suckling  clover 
(Trifolium  Uliforme  L.)  and  hop  clover  (T.  procumbcns  L.), 
both  of  which  have  small  heads  of  yellow  flowers.  Both  may 
be  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  their  leaflets  arise  from  the 
end  of  the  leaf  stalk,  palmate,  while  in  black  medic  the  lateral 
leaves  arise  on  the  sides  of  the  leaf  stalk,  pinnate.  Moreover, 
in  these  clovers,  as  in  other  clovers,  the  corolla  is  persistent, 
its  withered  remains  enveloping  the  pod. 

235.  Adaptation. — The  plant  is  grown  somewhat  extensively 
in  the  cooler  countries  of  Europe,  but  has  never  been  generally 
used  in  North  America.  It  has  attracted  attention  here  chiefly 
by  reason  of  the  use  of  imported  seed  to  adulterate  alfalfa  and 
red  clover.  It  is  adapted  to  the  same  soils  as  red  clover  and 
has  a  climatic  adaptation  similar  to  that  of  alsike  clover.  In 
other  words,  it  does  best  on  limestone  friable  soils  in  a  cool, 
moist  climate.  It  will,  however,  remain  green  during  summer 
droughts,  and  has  for  this  reason  been  recommended  for  lawn 
mixtures,  probably  unwisely.  On  account  of  its  small  yield 
and  habit  of  growth,  it  is  adapted  only  to  pasture.  Even  for 
this  purpose,  it  is  not  equal  to  white  clover.  The  evidence 
seems  to  be  that  it  is  palatable  and  nutritious  and,  in  suitable 
climates  and  on  suitable  soils,  where  clovers  fail  it  may  be 
worthy  of  trial.  It  may  be  described  as  a  weak  biennial.  It 
has  almost  the  habit  of  an  annual,  in  that  under  suitable  con- 
ditions it  makes  its  chief  growth  the  first  season  and  usually 
dies  after  the  first  cutting  the  second  year.  It  seeds  so  abun- 
dantly, however,  that  its  growth  is  practically  permanent. 

236.  Seed. — The  cheapness  of  the  seed,  which  is  one  of  the 
factors  to  cause  it  to  be  cultivated  in  Europe,  has  also  caused 
it  to  be  used  as  an  adulterant.  The  seeds  are  about  the  same 
size  and  shape  as  the  smaller  and  more  oval  seeds  of  alfalfa 
(325,000  per  pound).  They  are  to  be  distinguished  by  the 
more  regular,  globular  form  and  the  more  prominent  project- 


LEGUMINOUS    FORAGE    CROPS  20^ 

ing  tip  of  the  radicle.     The  larger  seeds  of  alfalfa  are  more 

kidney-shaped,   and  all   alfalfa  seeds  are  flattened  and  have  a 

tendency  to  be  angular,  while  the  black  medic 

seeds  are  distinctly  circular  and  are  uniform 

in    shape,    size    and    color    (yellowish-green). 

(200)     They  are  sufficiently  distinct  from  red 

clover  seeds  in  color  and  form  to  be  detected    Black   medic   (yellow 

readily.     (150)  |t°"*-    r°^°"'*^« 

•^        \    <J    y  left;  single  seed  on 

237.  Seeding.— The  power  of  germination  JlVtimes. ^"^^''^'''* 
is  similar  to  that  of  alfalfa.  It  usually  con- 
tains few  impurities  and  is  not  adulterated.  If  sown  alone,  15 
to  20  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  are  required.  Black  medic  seed 
is  sometimes  sown  in  the  pods,  when  about  twice  the  amount 
by  weight  is  required.  It  should,  however,  be  sown  only  in 
mixtures  in  about  the  same  proportion  and  under  the  same  con- 
ditions as  white  clover. 

II.     BUR    CLOVERS 

238.  Bur  Clovers. — (Medicago  maculata  Willd.  and  M.  dentic- 
ulata  Willd.),  which  more  properly  should  be  known  as  spotted 
medic  and  toothed  medic,  respectively,  derive  their  names  from 
the  spirally  twisted,  conspicuous  pods  whose  edges  are  armed 
with  one  or  two  rows  of  prickles.  In  the  toothed  medic  these 
prickles  end  in  a  distinct  hook.  These  pods  or  burs  cause 
trouble  by  getting  into  the  wool  of  sheep.  (201)  In  spotted 
medic  there  are  one  or  more  dark  spots  near  the  center  of  each 
leaflet.  The  plants  have  a  general  likeness  to  alfalfa,  but  are 
more  spreading. 

The  bur  clovers  are  annuals,  native  to  the  Mediterranean 
region.  Toothed  medic  has  become  widely  distributed  in  Cali- 
fornia and  somewhat  in  the  southern  states,  where  it  is  con- 
sidered valuable  for  pasture  and  for  the  improvement  of  the 
soil.  Spotted  medic  is  probably  less  widely  grown  in  California, 
but  has  been  grown  somewhat  more  extensively  in  the  southern 


204  TIJE    I'OKAtiE   AND    FIBER    CROl'S    IN    AMERICA 

States  than  the  toothed  medic.  It  grows  only  in  mild  climates. 
It  is  sown  in  the  fall  and  ripens  the  following  spring.  Another 
crop  may  be  grown  on  the  same  land  during  the  summer.  The 
seed  left  in  the  soil  will  produce  a  crop  during  the  succeeding 
winter  months.  It  is  sometimes  sown  in  maize  and  cotton  to 
provide  winter  grazing  and  to  enrich  the  soil. 

The  seeds  closely  resemble  those  of  alfalfa,  but  are  larger, 
dull,  and  distinctly  kidney-shaped.  In  the  seeds  of  spotted  medic 
the  tip  of  the  radicle  projects  prominently  and  is  often  tinted 
red.^  Somewhat  less  seed  per  acre  is  required  because  of 
its  annual  habit.  The  seed  is  often  sown  in  the  bur,  when  30 
to  60  pounds  per  acre  are  used.  The  burs  are  obtained  by 
raking  off  the  dead  stems  or  vines,  and  sweeping  up  the  re- 
maining burs  with  a  wire  broom.  As  much  as  1,000  pounds  of 
such  burs  are  said  to  have  been  obtained  from  an  acre."  Where 
seed  is  scarce  a  few  seed  may  be  placed  in  hills  three  feet 
apart:  otherwise,  sow  broadcast  by  hand  and  harrow. 

III.     JAPAN    CLOVER 

239.  Japan  Clover  or  lespedeza  {Lespedeza  striata  (Thunb.) 
Hook  and  Arn.)  belongs  to  a  tribe  (Hedysareae)  which  is 
characterized  by  the  fruit  not  being  a  true  legume,  the  pod 
being  divided  crosswise  by  one  or  more  joints,  lament.  In 
the  genus  Lespedeza  there  is  one  or  at  most  two  joints.  The 
leaves  have  three  leaflets,  the  lateral  leaflets  being  on  the  side 
of  the  leaf  stalk,  pinnate.  There  are  about  a  dozen  native 
perennial  species  more  or  less  widely  distributed  throughout  the 
United  States,  especially  southward,  some  of  which,  occurring 
in  the  herbage,  add  to  its  value. 

Japan  clover  is  an  annual  of  eastern  Asiatic  origin,  introduced 
from  China  into  the  South  Atlantic  states  about  1850,  and 
said  to  have  been  wddely  distributed  during  the  war  between 

1  Stebler  and    Schroter:    The   Best    Forage   Plants,   p.    153. 
-Thomas  Shaw:   Clovers  and  How  to  Grow  Them,  p.  298. 


LEGUMINOUS  FORAGE  CROPS  20$ 

the  States,  the  seed  having  been  carried  from  place  to  place  by 
the  hay  and  the  horses.  It  is  now  naturalized  as  far  west 
as  Texas. 

It  is  a  spreading  or  ascending  plant  with  one  to  three  sessile 
or  nearly  sessile  pink  or  purple  flowers,  usually  from  6  to  12 
inches  high,  but  on  rich  lowlands  sometimes  30  inches  or  more, 
when  it  may  be  cut  for  hay.  Ordinarily,  how- 
ever, it  is  used  for  pasture,  and  takes  some- 
what the  same  place  in  the  south  as  white 
clover  does  in  the  north.  While  Bermuda  japan  clover  seed. 
grass  and  Japan  clover  are  to  the  southern  f.V'^^'J^'^^"' ,^^ 
states  what  Kentucky  blue  grass  and  white  left;  naked  seed  on 
clover  are  to  the  northeastern  states,  yet  they  ^rged^four  time"s" 
have  been  much  less  extensively  cultivated. 

Japan  clover  is  adapted  chiefly  to  the  Gulf  states,  where  it 
will  grow  on  a  variety  of  soils.  It  is  killed  by  frost  and 
suspends  growth  during  summer  droughts,  consequently  its 
chief  pasture  is  furnished  in  spring  or  fall.  It  re-seeds  on  the 
same  ground  year  after  year,  and  like  white  clover  is  not  sown 
much  artificially.  The  seeds  are  rounded  to  egg-shaped,  0.05  to 
0.07  inch  long  and  0.04  to  0.06  inch  wide ;  green,  greenish  brown, 
amber,  or  black.  They  usually  occur  commercially  in  the  pod 
which  in  turn  is  enclosed  in  the  calyx,  as  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion. The  rate  of  seeding  is  about  one-half  bushel  of  unclean 
seed  per  acre. 

IV.     VETCHES 

240.  Kinds. — There  is  at  least  a  score  of  either  introduced 
or  native  species  of  vetch,  two  of  which  have  been  cultivated 
in  this  country:  spring  vetch  or  tare  (Vicia  sativa  L.)  and 
winter,  hairy,  or  sand  vetch  (F.  villosa  Roth.).  The  former 
is  widely  used  in  England  as  a  soiling  crop  for  milch  cows. 
It  makes  an  excellent  food  because  palatable  and  containing  a  re- 


206  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

markably  high  proportion  of  digestible  protein,  but  has  not  been 
found  adapted  to  any  considerable  portion  of  the  United  States, 


Hairy  vetch  taken  at  Cornell  Station  June  28.    Vine  in  blown 
One-fifth  natural  size 


although  it  has  been   grown   somewhat   in   the   New   England 
states  and*  in  Washington  and  Oregon. 

Winter  vetch  is  likely  to  find  a  much  wider  adaptation  in  the 
United  States,  although  always  as  a  secondary  crop,  and  is  the 
species  which  will  be  described  here. 

241.  Description. — Winter  vetch  is  a  winter  annual  with 
vine-like,  trailing,  sparingly  branched  stems  three  to  five,  some- 
times eight,  feet  long,  bearing  leaves  with  about  eight  pairs  o-f 


LEGUMINOUS    FORAGE   CROPS 


207 


leaflets,  an  upper  pair  of  tendrils  and  the  midrib  terminating 
in  a  tendril.  From  one  to  two  dozen  bluish-purple  flowers  are 
borne  in  racemes  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  Three  to  six 
of  the  flowers  on  each  flower  stalk  produce  pods  one  inch  to 
one  and  a  half  inches  long  and  three-eighths  to  one- 
half  inch  wide,  in  which  are  about  six  brown  to 
black,  round  to  lens-shaped  seeds  variable  in  size, 
but  averaging  about  one-sixth  of  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter. When  grown  unsupported  the  stems  grow 
erect  for  about  one  foot,  but  as  the  plant  increases 
in  length  it  becomes  successively  more  and  more 
decumbent,  so  that  when  it  is  four  feet  in  length, 
three  feet  may  be  trailing  upon  the  ground.  The 
vegetative  portion  of  the  plant,  especially  the  newer 
growth,  is  quite  hairy,  but  this  does  not 
prevent  it  from  being  relished  by  domeS' 
tic  animals.  It  produces  a  mass  of  fibrous  roots 
bearing  an  abundance  of  root-tubercles.  Seed  sown 
at  the  Cornell  Station  on  July  10  produced  plants 
whose  roots  on  November  i  were  traced  to  a  depth 
of  3  feet  8  inches  in  a  tough,  impervious  clay."^ 

It  is  readily  distinguished  from  the  spring  vetch 
by  the  difference  in  the  pods.  In  the  spring  vetch 
the  pods  are  less  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  wide, 
from  one  and  a  half  to  two  inches  long,  and  are 
usually  black  instead  of  straw-colored,  as  in  the 
winter  vetch.  The  pods  are  about  8-seeded.  The 
seeds  are  about  the  same  size  as  those  of  winter 
vetch,  but  are  blacker. 

242.  Adaptation  and  Value. — Although  it  will  grow 
better  upon  good  than  upon  poor  soil,  winter  vetch  is  especially 
adapted  in  the  farm  economy  as  a  winter  or  cover  crop  for 
the  improvement  of  poor  sandy  or  gravelly  soils.     It  is  char- 

iNew  York  Cornell  Sta.  Bui.  No.  198   (1902),  p.  110. 


Spring 

vetch  pod 

Natural  size 


2o8  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

acterized  not  only  by  the  abundance  of  the  root-tubercles,  but 
by  the  fresh  and  apparently  active  root-tubercles  very  early  in 
the  spring  or  during  open  weather  in  the  winter,  in  which  it 
differs  from  most  other  commonly  cultivated  legumes.  It  is 
believed,  therefore,  that  vetch  is  unusually  active  during  this 
period  in  gathering  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air. 

The  importance  of  the  root-tubercles  was  shown  by  the 
Alabama  Station,  where  in  field  trials  the  yield  of  field-cured 
hay  was  at  the  rate  of  232  pounds  per  acre  without  inoculation 
and  2,540  pounds  with  inoculation.^  Inoculation  was  accom- 
plished by  dipping  the  seed  in  water  into  which  there  had  been 
stirred  and  allowed  to  settle  earth,  in  which  spring  vetch  had 
for  several  years  in  succession  made  a  thrifty  growth.  Because 
of  its  habit  of  growth,  it  is  not  likely  to  be  raised  extensively 
for  forage,  but  it  is  highly  recommended  by  the  Alabama  and 
Mississippi  stations  "to  furnish  winter  grazing  upon  Bermuda 
grass  sod." "  At  the  Cornell  Station  three  months'  growth  of 
hairy  vetch  produced  6,824  pounds  of  air-dried  forage  per  acre, 
containing  240  pounds  nitrogen,  53  pounds  phosphoric  acid  and 
52  pounds  potash,  while  during  the  same  period  cowpeas  pro- 
duced 2,262  pounds  of  forage  per  acre,  containing  46,  23,  and 
19  pounds  respectively."  It  appears  perfectly  hardy  in  central 
New  York  and  to  do  well  as  far  south  as  Mississippi.  It  resists 
drought  well,  but  is  not  adapted  to  land  containing  an  excess 
of  water. 

243.  Culture. — While  it  can  be  sown  in  the  spring,  it  is 
valuable  principally  as  an  early  fall-sown  crop.  It  may  be 
sown  alone  at  the  rate  of  from  one  to  one  and  a  half  bushels 
(60  to  90  pounds)  per  acre.  Sowing  it  with  rye  is  recom-. 
mended,  as  the  rye  helps  to  support  the  vetch,  makes  it  more 
easily  harvested,  if  this  is  desired,  and  adds  to  the  vegetable 

1  Alabama  Sta.  Bui.  No.  87   (1897),  p.  464. 

2  Ibid. 

3  New  York  Cornell  Sta.  Bui.  No.  198  (1902),  p.  108. 


LEGUMINOUS  FORAGK  CROPS  209 

growth  in  case  it  is  plowed  under.  The  New  York  State  Station 
reports  satisfactory  results  with  one  and  a  half  bushels  of  vetch 
and  one-half  bushel  of  rye.  Others  prefer  one-half  to  one 
bushel  of  vetch  and  one  bushel  of  rye,  on  the  ground  that  if 
too  much  seed  is  sown  the  rye  will  not  be  able  to  support  it. 
The  rye  and  vetch  seed  are  mixed  and  sown  in  the  ordinary 
grain  drill.  The  vetch  starts  rather  slowly  and  should  there- 
fore be  sown  quite  early.  In  northern  latitudes  it  may  be  sown 
as  early  as  August  i,  and  should  not  be  sown  later  than 
October  i.  The  high  price  of  seed  has  prevented  the  use  of 
winter  vetch  as  a  renovating  crop. 

Seed  is  said  to  germinate  poorly  after  it  is  two  years  old. 
When  it  is  the  plan  to  sow  vetch  regularly  each  season,  one 
should  arrange  to  grow  the  seed.  The  seed  is  produced  rather 
abundantly.  One  load  of  ripened  vetch  may  produce  six  bushels 
of  seed.  It  may  be  threshed  in  the  ordinary  threshing  ma- 
chine. Annual  crops  have  been  obtained  at  the  Mississippi  Sta- 
tion during  12  years  by  self -seeding.^ 


V.     VELVET   BEAN 

244.  Velvet  Bean  (Mucuna  utilis  Wallich.)  in  favorable 
localities  produces  vines  30  to  50  feet  in  length.  The  purple 
flowers,  borne  in  clusters  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  feet  at 
the  joints  of  the  stem,  produce  short,  cylindrical  pods,  covered 
with  black,  velvety  down.  At  the  Kentucky  Station,  pods  were 
produced  which  measured  two  and  a  half  inches  in  length  and 
one-half  inch  in  diameter,  but  no  seeds  were  borne.  Each  pod 
contains  three  to  six  large,  rounded,  brown  and  white  mottled 
seeds,  and  is  constricted  laterally  between  the  seeds  and  often 
more  or  less  curved.  The  seed  is  about  one-half  inch  in  length; 
a  protruding  lip  characterizes  the  scar. 

lU.   S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Div.   Agros.  Bui.  No.  2   (Revised),  p.  75. 


210 


THE   FORAGE   AND   FIBER    CROPS    IN   AMERICA 


Its  climatic  range  in  North  America  is  confined  to  that  of 
the  cotton  plant.  In  sections  where  seed  will  ripen,  the  plant 
compares  favorably  with  the  cowpeas  as  a  soil  "renovator." 
The  method  of  culture  resembles  the  latter,  except  that  rows  are 
usually  farther  apart — four  to  five  feet.    It  finds  its  best  growth 


Velvet  bean  flowers.     One-third 

natural  size,     a  and  b  Single 

flowers  at  different  stages 

(From  photo  by  Carman) 


A   cluster    of    velvet   bean    pods 

One-third  natural  size 

(From  photo  by  Carman) 


on  light  sandy  soils  with  liberal  applications  of  acid  phosphate 
and  potash.  Seed  may  be  broadcasted  at  the  rate  of  one  bushel 
per  acre,  or  planted  at  intervals  of  two  feet  in  rows  four  feet 
apart,  dropping  two  to  three  seeds  in  a  hill.  It  has  been  reported 
to  yield  2  to  4  tons  of  hay  and  20  to  28  bushels  of  seed  per  acre. 
The  plant  is  apparently  a  native  of  India  whence,  as  an 
ornamental  garden  plant,  it  was  introduced  into  the  United 
States  in  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Its  use  as 
a  forage  plant  is  yet  in  the  experimental  stage. 


LEGUMINOUS  FORAGE  CROPS 


211 


VI.     FLORIDA    BEGGAR   WEED 


245.  Florida  Beggar  Weed  (Desmodium  tortuosum  D.  C.)  is 
an  annual,  closely  related  to  Japan  clover,  from  which  it  differs 
in  having  its  pods  several  jointed  and  in  its 
much  larger  size,  growing  under  cultivation  in 
the  tropics  six  to  ten  feet  high.  It  is  adapted 
to  the  sub-tropical  portions  of  Florida  and  the 
Gulf  states,  especially  on  rich,  moist,  sandy 
lands.  Horses,  mules  and  cattle 
eat  it  readily  when  green  or  cured 
into  hay.  If,  however,  it  is  sown 
thinly,  it  becomes  woody  and  is  less 
desirable.  Not  less  than  five  pounds 
of  clean  seed  per  acre  should  be 
sown.  Seeding  is  usually  done  in 
the  latter  part  of  June. 


Florida  beggar  weed 
spray,  showing 
flowers  in  bloom. 


VII.     LOTUS 


Florida  beggar 
weed  seed,  a 
Enlarged  four 
times;  b  natu- 
ral size.  Lom- 
ent  to  the  left, 
natural  size. 


246.  General  Characters. — There  are 
120  species  of  the  genus  Lotus  widely 
distributed,  of  which  about  40  occur  principally  in  western  United  States. 
Of  these,  three  have  been  cultivated  in  this  country:  bird's-foot  trefoil 
(Lotus  corniculatus  L.),  prairie  bird's-foot  trefoil  (L.  americanus  (Nutt.) 
Bisch.)  and  square  pod  or  winged  pea  (L.  tetragonolobus  L.).  These  are 
plants  having  somewhat  the  appearance  and  habit  of  growth  of  black  medic, 
but  have  larger  flowers,  and  produce  straight,  oblong,  many-seeded  pods.  The 
basal  leaflets  have  often  been  mistaken  for  stipules,  which  are  rudimentary. 
They  are  characterized  by  growing  in  the  driest  situations  and  upon  the 
lightest  and  most   sterile   soils. 


247.  Bird's-foot  Trefoil. — The  branching  leafy  stems  are  6  to  18  inches 
long,  angular,  and  are  spreading  or  ascending.  The  tap  root  is  spindle-shaped 
and  relatively  large,  penetrating  to  a  moderate  depth.  There  are  two  to  six 
yellow  flowers  in  each  cluster,  the  standard  being  tinged  with  red  and  green. 
The  pods  are  1  to  1.5  inches  long.  The  seeds,  about  the  size  of  red  clover 
seeds,  are  oval,  flattened  on  the  sides,  brown  with  a  wide,  round  spot  at  the 
hilum.  In  Europe  there  are  three  varieties:  common,  slender  or  fine-leafed, 
and   hairy   bird's-foot   trefoil.      Commercial    seed   is   usually   of   the   slender   or 


212 


THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


fine-leaved  variety.  The  seed  is  often  adulterated  with  marsh  bird's-foot 
trefoil  (L.  uliginosus  Schk.),  because  it  is  cheaper;  it  has  no  agricultural 
value,  except  on  marshy  or  moor  land.  The  seeds  are  less  than  one-half  the 
size  by  weight  and  are  olive-green. 

Bird's-foot  trefoil  has  become 
naturalized  in  this  country,  espe- 
cially in  the  south. ^  It  is  cultivated 
somewhat  widely,  although  perhaps 
not   extensively   in    Europe. 

"By  itself,  bird's-foot  trefoil  is 
not  productive,  but  it  is  very  suit- 
able, in  mixture  with  fodder  plants 
of  taller  growth,  for  filling  up  the 
spaces  beneath  and  between  them; 
in  this  way,  it  materially  adds  to 
the  produce.  It  is  suitable  either 
for  cutting,  or  depasturing.  It 
thrives  almost  on  any  soil,  and  is 
perennial.  These  properties  render 
bird's-foot  trefoil  a  very  valuable 
plant  for  permanent  pastures  and 
meadows.  It  is  also  appropriate  for 
shorter  leys,  where  red  clover  does 
not  thrive.  The  great  obstacle  to 
its  cultivation  is  the  very  high  price 
of  the   seed."  ^ 

It  is  recommended  to  be  sown  in 
the  spring  with  a  nurse  crop  at  the 
rate  of  11  pounds  of  seed  per  acre. 
248.  Prairie  Bird's-foot  Trefoil  is  a  native  annual,  erect  species  oc- 
curring in  the  High  Plains  region  from  New  Mexico  to  North  Dakota,  and 
also  on  the  Pacific  coast.  "This  vetch  often  grows  two  to  three  feet  high  in 
good  soils  and  seasons,  or  may  not  be  more  than  a  few  inches  high  during 
dry  seasons  or  on  sterile  soils,  but  it  roots  deeply  and  is  well  adapted  to  its 
native  prairies.  The  seed  may  be  had  for  the  gathering,  and  need  not  cost 
any  more  than  clover  or  alfalfa,  if  the  trouble  is  taken  to  run  the  chaff 
through  a  fanning  mill."  ^ 


Florida  beggar  weed;  the  young  plant 


249.  Square  Pod  Pea  is  a  much-branched,  ascending  annual,  native  to 
southern  Europe.  The  California  Station  produced  on  two  plats  yields  at  the 
rate  of  24  and  26  tons  of  green   material,   equivalent  to   four  or  five  tons  of 


lU.   S.   Dept.  Agr.,   Div.  Agros.  Bui.  No.  2    (Revised),  p.  40. 

sStebler  and  Schroter:   The  Best  Forage  Plants,  p.   161. 

»U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Div.  Agros.  Bui.  No.  2   (Revised),  p.  40,  1900. 


LEGUMINOUS  FORAGE  CROPS  2I3 

cured  hay  per  acre.  In  California,  when  sown  in  January,  it  will  be  ready 
to  plow  under  in  May.  While  it  has  been  found  to  do  fairly  well  on  heavy 
soils  in  that  state,  the  vScarcity  of  the  seed  and.  the  relatively  limited  adaptation 
of  the  plant  insure  it  little  promise. 


VIII.     WHITE  AND  YELLOW   MELILOTUS 

250.  White  and  Yellow  Melilotus  {Melilotus  alba  L.  and  M.  officinalis 
L.),  usually  known  as  sweet  clovers  because  of  their  characteristic  odor,  are 
distinguished  from  alfalfa,  for  which  they  are  not  infrequently  mistaken,  by 
their  ranker  growth,  more  succulent  structure,  smoother  surface,  rather  more 
distinctly  toothed  leaves,  their  long  racemes  of  white  or  yellow  flowers  and 
their  odor  of  coumarin.  In  many  parts  of  the  United  States  it  is  the  common 
wayside  weed,  the  white  and  earlier  blooming  melilotus  being  the  more  fre- 
quent. The  seed  of  the  white  species  has  been  sold  under  the  name  of  Bokhara 
clover,  or  simply  sweet  clover,  for  forage  purposes.  It  is,  however,  ex- 
ceedingly distasteful,  either  green  or  cured,  to  all  classes  of  domestic  animals, 
and  hence  unfit  for  forage. 

The  Illinois  Station  has  shown  that  the  bacteria  in  the  root-tubercles  of 
the  melilotus  readily  produce  root-tubercles  on  alfalfa.  It  has,  also,  been  held 
in  the  North  Atlantic  states  that  the  occurrence  of  these  weeds  on  a  given 
soil  is  an  indication  that  it  is  adapted  to  the  growth  of  alfalfa.  It  probably 
has  a  much  wider  range  of  soil  and  climate  than  alfalfa.  Because  of  its  rank 
growth  and  nitrogen-gathering  propensities,  it  has  been  recommended  for  the 
renovation  of  extremely  poor  soils.  The  difficulty  of  eradicating  it  is  in  many 
instances  an  objection  to  such  use.  It  is  considered  an  excellent  food  for 
bees.  The  seed  sometimes  occurs  in  alfalfa.  The  seeds  have  a  bitter-sweet 
taste  and  the  characteristic  odor  of  sweet  clover. 

"The  seed  of  the  Bokhara  clover  averages  darker  than  that  of  alfalfa. 
While  the  sizes  of  individual  seeds  of  the  two  kinds  are  similar,  the  form  of 
Bokhara  seeds  is  more  constantly  oval,  with  the  scar  nearer  one  extremity, 
and  the  tip  of  the  caulicle  never  projecting.  They  are  relatively  thicker,  not 
curved  sidewise,  and  the  surface  is  often  finely  uneven.  Furthermore,  an 
examination  of  the  embryo  shows  the  longer  caulicle  of  Bokhara  to  be  often 
abruptly  bent,  forming  an  extra  segment.  Nevertheless,  the  general  likeness 
between  the  two  kinds  of  seeds  is  very  striking,  and  only  careful  examination 
will  expose  the  deception  before  the  seed  is  sown.  The  presence  of  pods  of 
Bokhara  is  good  evidence  of  adulteration.  The  assurance  of  a  western  seed 
firm  that  its  alfalfa  seed  contained  no  sweet  clover  or  dodder,  which  recently 
came  to  the  notice  of  the  writer,  was  at  least  suggestive,  particularly  as  dodder 
seeds  were   present    in   considerable    number."  ^ 

1  Nevada  Sta.  Bui.  No.  47  (1900),  p.  9. 


214  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

IX.     SAINFOIN 

251.  Sainfoin  or  esparsette  (Onohrychis  sativa  Link.)  is  an  erect,  leafy 
perennial  one  to  two  feet  high,  bearing  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves  clusters 
of  many  bright  rose-red  flowers  in  spike-like  racemes  on  long  flower  stalks. 
Its  roots  are  said  to  penetrate  two  to  three  times  as  deeply  as  alfalfa 
roots.  (130)  There  are  six  to  twelve  pairs  of  lateral  leaflets  with  an  odd 
terminal  one,  imparipinnate.  The  one-seeded,  compressed,  reddish-brown  pods, 
about  one-fourth  inch  in  the  longest  diameter,  do  not  open  readily.  The 
upper  margin  of  the  pod  is  straight  and  thick;  the  lower  thin  and  curved  with 
sharp  teeth.  The  seeds  are  kidney-shaped  with  the  radicle  one-third  the  length 
of  the  seed.  There  are  about  22,500  seeds  to  the  pound.  The  power  of 
germination,  which  they  lose  after  one  year,  is  generally   rather  low. 

In  Europe  it  has  been  possible,  by  the  cultivation  of  sainfoin,  "to  utilize 
large  tracts  of  land  which  formerly  were  almost  valueless.  It  is  the  most 
important  fodder  plant  for  dry  and  barren  calcareous  hills.  It  withstands 
extreme  drought,  thrives  without  manure,  and  is  of  long  duration.  It  is 
not  rare  to  see  fields  of  sainfoin  20  years  old  which,  even  now,  are  doing 
well."  ^  While  it  thrives  in  the  older  parts  of  Germany,  it  is  suited  to  tem- 
perate rather  than  to  cold  climates.  Young  plants  are  liable  to  be  killed  in 
the  winter  if  not  protected.  Old  sainfoin  is  little  affected  by  the  winter,  but 
wet  and  cold  summers  diminish  the  yield  and  kill  some  of  the  plants.  It  has 
been  widely  tested  by  the  stations  of  the  United  States  without  as  yet  having 
been  found  to  have  any  adaptation  to  American  conditions.  Where  it  can  be 
grown  it  has  the  same  place  in  the  agricultural  economy  as  alfalfa,  which  it 
resembles  in  methods  of  culture  and  harvesting.  The  seed  is  usually  sown 
in  the  pods,  Stebler  recommending  78  pounds  per  acre  or  half  this  amount 
if  hulled  seed.  It  is  usually  sown  without  a  nurse  crop,  and  is  rarely  mixed 
with  grasses  or  other  legumes. 

X.     KIDNEY   VETCH 

252.  Kidney  Vetch  (Anthyllis  vidneraria  L.)  is  a  perennial,  having  erect 
or  spreading  stems  8  to  16  inches  long  with  comparatively  little  foliage.  The 
yellow  flowers  are  borne  in  rather  large  clusters.  The  side  leaflets  consist  of 
one  or  more  pairs  or  may,  on  the  basal  leaves,  be  entirely  absent,  while  the 
odd  and  terminal  leaflet  is  much  larger.  The  one-seeded  pod  is  about  one- 
fourth  inch  long  and  is  enclosed  in  the  persistent  calyx,  which  acts  as  a  seed 
distributer.  The  seeds  are  somewhat  oval,  not  unlike  black  medic  in  form, 
but  larger  and  mottled  with  yellow  and  green.  There  are  about  150,000  seeds 
to  the  pound. 

This  plant  was  brought  into  cultivation  in  northern  Germany  about  the 
middle  of  the  last  century  on  sandy  or  calcareous  soils  too  light  to  grow  red 
clover.  It  is  but  little  affected  by  drought  or  by  cold.  It  may,  therefore,  be 
sown   in  the  fall  with   rye   at   the   rate   of    15    to   20   pounds   of   seed   per  acre. 

1  Stebler  and  Schroter:   The  Best  Frrafc   Hants,  p.  95. 


LEGUMINOUS    FOIL\GE    CROPS  215 

It  is  recommended  by  Stebler  as  especially  suited  to  mixtures  with  grasses 
and  clovers  whether  for  pasture  or  for  hay.  Usually  there  is  but  one  cutting 
a  season,  a  little  later  than  red  clover,  the  aftermath  being  small.  The  yield 
is  not  large,  but  is  considered  sure.  In  Europe  it  is  deemed  especially  valuable 
in  ameliorating  the  soil.  In  America  it  has  not  been  found  to  be  sufficiently 
valuable  to   establish   itself  as  a   cultivated   crop. 

Practicums 

253.  Outline  for  Discussion  of  Leguminous  Forage  Crops  (for  general 
references  see  111). — Take  for  material  red  clover,  alsike  clover,  white  clover, 
alfalfa,  and  cowpeas. 

Description:  I,  18 1;  V,  482;  VII,  115;  XI,  28;  XIV,  241;  XVI,  1066 
XVII,    23,    242. 

Acquirement  of  nitrogen:  IV,  14;  X,  119;  XIV,  563;  XV,  221;  XVI,  748 
850,  954;  XVII,  133.  See  Rothamsted  Experiments  for  Fifty  Years,  pp 
164-6.      (132,   143.) 

Adaptation  and  distribution:  III,  398;  IV,  139;  XI,  28;  XV,  665;  XVI,  39 
XVII,  26,   239,   1056,    1059.     See  Twelfth   Census,   Vol.   VI. 

Seed:  V,  399;  VI,  430;  XII,  959;  XV,  1084;  XVI,  660;  XVII,  241,  547 
857,  1148,  1149.  See  Wallace's  Farmer,  Feb.  25,  1906,  p.  255;  March  2 
1906,  p.  294. 

Cultural  Methods:  General:  II,  200;  XV,  237,  730;  XVII,  25,  129,  242, 
354,   355,   856,   857,    1059. 

Fertilizers:   III,  293;  XI,  530;  XIV,  428;  XV,  139,  346;  XVII,  1141. 

Liming:  XII,  625;  XV,  464;  XVII,  857,  1059,   1148. 

Rotation:  XII,   625;   XVI,    150;   XVII,   356,   1141. 

Harvesting  and  storing:  IX,  439;  XIII,  548,  901;  XVII,  25,  1059. 

Value:  Feeding  value:  III,  512;  IV,  736;  VIII,  1008;  X,  676;  XI,  570; 
XIII,  270,  271;  XIV,  605;  XV,  177,  899;  XVI,  82-85;  XVlI,  25,  380,  491, 
579,  686,  688,  856,  897,  900,   1179. 

Value  as  cover  crop  for  green  manure:  IV,  208;  V,  699,  776,  874;  X,  252; 
XVII,   354. 

254.  Leguminous  Forage  Plants.^ — Give  each  student  a  specimen  of  six 
legumes  of  which  the  following  are  suggested:  red  clover,  alsike  clover, 
alfalfa,   black   medic,    sweet   clover,    hairy   vetch. 

Leaves:    spirally    arranged;    two-rowed:    abundant;    medium;    not    abundant. 

Leaflets:  No ;  palmate;  pinnate:  smooth;  hairy:  edges  smooth;  serrated. 

Leaflets:   Sketch. 

Stipules:  attached  to  petioles;  not  attached  to  petioles. 

1  The  Roman  character  refers  to  Experiment  Station  Record  volume;  the 
Arabic  to  the   page. 

2  This  practicum  is  best  conducted  with  fresh  specimens,  although  dried  or 
mounted  specimens  may  be  used.     (110) 


2l6  THE   FORAGE   AND   FIBER   CROPS   IN    AMERICA 

Stems:  height   ;  diameter  one  inch  from  base   ;  erect; 

spreading;  decumbent;  trailing. 

Stems:  round;  square:   hairy;  smooth:  stoloniferous;  not  stoloniferous. 

Branches:   none;   few;   many. 

Inflorescence:  at  end  of  leaf-bearing  stem  or  branch;  springing  from  axil 
of  leaf. 

Inflorescence:   raceme;   umbel;  capitulum. 

Flowers  upon  maturity:  reflexed;  not  reflexed. 

Calyx:  length  of  anterior  tooth  compared  with  other  teeth 

Petals:  united;  free:  white;  red;  pink;  purple;  blue;  yellow:  persistent; 
not  persistent. 

255.  Identification  of  Leguminous  Forage  Plants. — Select  and  preserve 
the  whole  fruit  of   a   number   of   the   leguminous   forage   plants   and   of   those 

.  ^^jmOLL    MICROPVLE   POINT 
RAOCLE— — .^Zjr^  Jar    ^^^.^    /COTYLEDONS 

^^r  *---      5^^"^^^^^^^     OUTLINE  or 

/jt  ^2F^'       '     '     /    "^^"'v     SEED  COAT 


Sweet  clover  {Melilotus  alba)  seed  showing  relation  of  the  embryo  to  the  seed  coat 

Enlarged  twenty-five  times 

(Redrawn  from  Roberts) 

leguminous  plants  which  are  likely  to  occur  as  impurities  or  adulterants. 
The  following  are  suggested:  red  clover,  alsike  clover,  white  clover,  alfalfa, 
black  medic,  sweet  clover,  hairy  vetch.  The  following  outline  suggests 
qualities  which  might  be  observed.  Where  adjectives  used  do  not  apply,  others 
may  be  used.     The  practicum  on  beans  should  precede  this  practicum. 

Calyx:  no.  of  teeth ;   relative  length  of  inferior  tooth 

Calyx  tube:  hairy;   smooth;   no.  of  ribs...: 

Corolla:   no.   of  petals ;   free;   united;   persistent:   easily   removed: 

smooth;   hairy. 

Pod:  roundish;  kidney-shaped;  elongated:  straight;  twisted:  opens  longi- 
tudinally;  opens  transversely. 

Style:   persistent;    deciduous.  • 

Seeds  per  pod:  extreme  nos ;  usual  no 

Threshing:  seeds  easily  removed;  seeds  difficult  to  remove;   reason. 

Seed:  viewed  from  two  largest  diameters:  round;  oval;  elliptical;  kidney- 
shaped. 

Seed:   viewed   from   two   smallest   diameters:    round;    oval;   flat. 


LEGUMINOUS    FOILVGE    CROPS  21/ 

Seed:  length  of  largest  diameter ;  second  largest  diameter 

Seed:  orange;  yellowish-brown;  dark  olive-green;  black;  yellow;  reddish; 
red;   green;    yellowish-green. 

Hilum:    round;   oval;    elongated. 

Radicle:   more  than   half  the  edge;   half  the  edge;   less  than  half  the  edge. 

Radicle:   tip  prominent;    tip   not   prominent. 

256.  For  the  Identification  of  the  Seeds  of  Clovers  and  their  Com- 
mon Impurities  and  Adulterants. — This  practicum  should  be  preceded  by 
the  practicum  on  the  fruits  of  leguminous  forage  plants.  Give  each  student 
two  grams  of  clover  seeds  and  impurities  mixed  in  definite  proportions. 
The  following  is  suggested  as  satisfactory:  red  clover  60  per  cent.;  alsike 
clover  20  per  cent.;  white  clover  10  per  cent.;  black  medic,  sweet  clover, 
and  timothy,  2  per  cent,  each;  and  0.5  per  cent,  each  of  lady's  thumb 
{Polygonum  persicaria  L.),  Rugel's  broad  plantain  (Plantago  rngelii  D.  C), 
narrow  plantain  {Plantago  lanceolata  L.),  sorrel  {Rumcx  acctosella  L,), 
curled  dock  {Rumex  crispus  L.),  yellow  foxtail  {Chaetochloa  glauca  (L.) 
Scribn.),  ragweed  (Ambrosia  art emisiae folia  L.)  and  witch  grass  {Panicutn 
capillar e  L.). 

The  student  should  be  required  to  separate  these  seeds  and,  if  practicable, 
as  a  check  on  the  accuracy  of  his  work,  to  obtain  the  weight  of  each.  Named 
samples  of  the  seeds  of  each  may  then  be  examined  by  the  student  and  his 
own  sample  named  therefrom.  Mounted  specimens  of  each  plant  should  also 
be  on  exhibition.  If  students  are  not  supplied  with  hand  lens,  samples 
mounted  under  a  good   reading  glass  or  similar  microscope   may  be  provided. 

257.  For  the  Identification  of  Alfalfa  Seed  and  its  Common  Im- 
purities and  Adulterants. — This  practicum  should  be  preceded  by  the  prac- 
ticum on  the  fruits  of  leguminous  forage  plants.  Give  each  student  two 
grams  of  alfalfa  seed  mixed  with  definite  proportions  of  other  seeds.  The 
following  is  suggested  as  satisfactory:  alfalfa  50  per  cent.;  black  medic  40 
per  cent.;  sweet  clover,  bur  clover,  2  per  cent,  each;  and  1  per  cent,  each 
of  field  or  large  seeded  dodder,  clover  or  small  seeded  dodder,  lamb's  quarters, 
green  foxtail,  wild  mustard,  and  dandelion.  The  practicum  may  be  conducted 
as  in  256. 

258.  Field  Study  of  Alfalfa. — The  following  is  suggested  as  a  possible 
practicum  at  any  institution  where  experiments  in  alfalfa  are  being  conducted, 
the  outline  to  be  changed  to  suit  conditions: 

I.    (a)  Observe   stand  and   presence  of  weeds  on  3-year   seeding. 

(b)  Observe   stand  and  presence   of   weeds   on  5-year   seeding. 

(c)  Observe   stand  and   presence   of  weeds   on  6-year  seeding. 

(d)  Note  the  nature  and  habit  of  dodder. 

(e)  What   is  the   effect  of  its  presence  in  the  field? 

(f)  How  does  alfalfa  renew  its  growth? 

II.    Observe  the   stand,   degree   of   browsing,   and   presence   of   weeds   on   the 
experiment  pasture. 


2l8  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

III.    (a)   Study    and    make    diagram    of    the    lay-out    and    treatment    of    plats 
741-750  on  the  Mitchell   Farm. 

(b)  Note  the  stand  on 

1.  limed  portion; 

2.  unlimed  portion  of  each  plat. 

(c)  Note  the  abundance  of  weeds  and  grass    (also  clover)    on 

1.  limed  portion; 

2.  unlimed  portion  of  each  plat. 

Remarks  as  to  nature  of  soil,  inoculation,  and  condition  of  growth. 

259.  Collateral  Reading. — F.  G.  Stebler  and  C.  Schroter:  The  Best 
Forage   Plants,  pp.   156-164.     London:    David   Nutt,    1889. 

Thomas  Shaw:  Clovers  and  How  to  Grow  Them,  pp.  291-332;  338-344. 
New  York:   Orange  Judd  Co.,    1906. 

F.  Lamson-Scribner:  Southern  Forage  Plants.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers' 
Bui.  No.   102    (1899),  pp.  31-3;   38;   41-5. 

Jared  G.  Smith:  The  Cultivated  Vetches.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Div.  Agros. 
Circ.   No.  6,    1898. 

Jared  G.  Smith:  Florida  Beggar  Weed.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Div.  Agros. 
Circ.  No   13,   1899. 

J.  B.  Killebrew:  Grasses  and  Forage  Plants.  Tennessee  Station  Bui.  Vol. 
XI   (1898),  Nos.  2,  3,  and  4;  pp.  87;  89;   90;    104-8. 

J.  F.  Duggar:  Winter  Pastqrage,  Hay,  and  Fertility  Afforded  by  Hairy 
Vetch.     Alabama   Station  Bui.   No.   105    (1899),   pp.   129-160. 


XII 


LEGUMES   FOR   SEED 

260.  Kinds. — The  most  extensively  grown  legumes  for  their 
seed  are  the  common,  kidney  or  haricot  bean  (Phaseolus  vul- 
garis L.),  the  common  pea  (Pisiim  sativum  L.),  and  the  peanut 
(Arachis  hypogaea  L.).  In  addition  to  these  the  cowpea 
(Vigna  catjang  Walp.)  and  the  soy  bean  {Glycine  hispida 
Maxim.),  although  more  extensively  cultivated  for  their  for- 
age, are  also  cultivated  for  their  seeds  for  human  consumption, 
although  more  largely  for  domestic  animals.  The  broad  or 
horse  bean  (Vicia  faba  L.)  common  in  England  and  well  known 
to  ancient  agriculture,  is  sparingly  raised  in  Canada  for  its 
seeds  and  forage  for  domestic  animals.  The  hot  summers  of 
most  portions  of  the  United  States  are  not  suited  to  its  growth. 
Others  grown  in  gardens  for  human  consumption,  but  rarely 
raised  under  field  conditions,  are  lima  bean  (Phaseolus  lunatus 
L.),  Spanish  bean  or  scarlet  runner  (P.  multiflorus  Willd.), 
black  bean  (Dolichos  labab  L.),  and  two  varieties.  Yard  Long 
and  Cuban — sometimes  called  Cuban  asparagus  or  simply  aspar- 
agus bean — (D.  sesquipedalis  L.).  All  legumes  cultivated  for 
their  seeds  are  annuals. 

I.    FIELD    BEANS 

261.  Relationships. — The  plants  of  five  genera,  Phaseolus, 
Dolichos,  Glycine,  Vicia  and  Vigna,  and  occasionally  some 
others,  are  regarded  as  beans,  or  at  least  have  some  species 
that  are  so  regarded.  While  it  is  a  common  expression  that 
one  does  not  know  much  if  one  does  not  know  beans,  it  is 
difficult  to  state  any  characters  that  are  common  to  all  beans. 

219 


220  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

Generally  beans  are  more  or  less  vine-like  plants,  although  some 
of  the  uncultivated  forms  have  acquired  the  bush  or  so-called 
dwarf  habit  of  growth.  Soy  beans,  however,  are  upright 
plants  without  any  tendency  to  climb,  and  the  broad  or  horse 
bean,  although  belonging  to  a  genus  whose  species  are  mostly 
vines  or  vine-like,  is  an  erect  growing  plant.  Bean  plants  are 
usually  coarse  growing  and  harsh,  with  relatively  large  leaflets 
and  rather  woody  stems.  The  cowpea  is  the  least  harsh  and 
woody. 

Beans  may  be  grown  (i)  for  the  whole  plant  for  forage; 
(2)  for  the  ripened  seed;  (3)  for  the  unripened  seed,  when 
they  are  known  as  shell  beans;  and  (4)  for  the  young  pods, 
when  they  are  known  as  string  or  snap  beans.  As  a  rule,  only 
broad  or  horse  beans,  soy  beans,  and  cowpeas  are  raised  for 
forage.  The  plants  of  the  genus  Phaseolus — namely,  common  or 
kidney  bean,  lima  bean,  and  Spanish  bean — are  not  highly  es- 
teemed for  forage.  Lima  beans,  black  beans,  soy  beans,  cowpeas, 
and  horse  beans  are  used  for  human  consumption  only  as  shell 
or  ripe  beans;  common  beans  and  Spanish  beans  as  either  snap, 
shell  or  ripe;  and  Yard  Long  and  Cuban  only  as  snap  beans. 
The  common  bean  and  the  lima  bean  may  be  grown  either  as  a 
bush  or  dwarf  variety,  or  as  a  climbing  or  pole  variety,  without 
reference  to  the  use  for  which  they  are  to  be  employed.  When 
grown  as  snap  beans,  either  common  or  lima  beans,  whether 
bush  or  climbing,  may  have  either  green  or  yellow  pods;  when 
the  latter,  they  are  known  as  wax  b^ans. 

What  are  known  as  field  beans  are  bush  varieties  of  the  com- 
mon or  kidney  bean  grown  for  their  ripened  seeds.  These  are 
in  no  way  botanically  distinguishable  from  the  green  pod  bush 
varieties  grown  as  shell  or  as  snap  beans.  The  field  varieties  may 
be  used  as  snap  or  as  shell  beans,  while  the  garden  varieties  may 
be  grown  under  field  conditions  for  their  ripened  seeds.  The 
latter  practise  is  rare.  In  general,  the  field  varieties  are  more 
hardy  than  the  garden  varieties;  that  is,  they  will  thrive  under 


LEGUMES   FOR    SEED  221 

more  adverse  conditions,  and  are,  perhaps,  less  subject  to  dis- 
ease. The  pods  are  usually  less  fleshy,  the  strings  more  pro- 
nounced (they  are  entirely  absent  in  some  garden  varieties), 
and  the  seeds  more  abundant  and  better  developed. 

262.  Common  Characters. — Field  beans  have  upright,  branch- 
ing, ribbed  stems  bearing  large  leaves  with  three  entire  oval- 
acuminate  leaflets,  the  upper  ones  symmetrical,  the  lateral  ones 
oblique.  There  are  two  stipules  at  the  base  of  the  upper  leaf- 
lets and  one  at  the  base  of  each  of  the  lateral  leaflets.  The  flow- 
ers are  borne  in  racemes  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  A  pair  of 
flowers  and  the  pods  arise  at  a  single  place,  and  are  borne  on 
short  stalks,  pointing  in  opposite  directions.  The  calyx  is 
small  compared  with  the  corolla.  The  pod  is  linear  and  sev- 
eral-seeded; it  is  not  jointed,  but  may  be  slightly  constricted 
between  the  seeds. 

263.  Variable  Characters. — The  plant  may  vary  in  height, 
usually  from  24  to  30  inches;  it  may  be  upright  or  spreading; 
it  may  have  runners — that  is,  show  a  tendency  to  climb ;  or  run- 
ners may  be  wanting.  The  leaves  vary  abundantly;  the  leaf- 
lets vary  in  size,  shape,  texture,  and  color.  The  flowers  may  be 
white  or  purple.  The  flower  or  pod  stem  varies  in  length  and 
in  number  of  pods.  The  pods  may  vary  in  length  and  in  num- 
ber of  seeds;  they  may  be  straight  or  curved,  twisted  or  sym- 
metrical, flat  or  oval,  smooth  or  rough,  depressed  or  full  be- 
tween seeds.  The  seeds  may  be  white,  brown,  red,  black,  or 
mottled.  The  scar  or  eye  (hilum)  may  be  white,  black,  yellow 
or  mottled  yellow.    The  seed  varies  greatly  in  shape  and  size. 

264.  Varieties. — While  the  common  bean  is  known  as  kidney 
bean,  certain  varieties  of  the  kidney  bean  are  known  as  kidney 
beans,  because  of  their  kidney  shape;  while  other  varieties  are 
rather  loosely  classified  as  marrow,  medium,  or  pea  beans.  The 
last    two    types    are    often    called    navy    beans.      Gilmore    has 


222  THE   FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

Studied  at  Cornell  University  the  varieties  of  field  beans.     He 
proposes  the  following  key: 

Seed  0.6  inch  or  more  in  length,  more  or  less  reniform.  Ratio,  length,  width, 
thickness  =  0.4  :  0.19  :  0.15  Kidney 

Seed  between  0.4  and  0.6  inch  in  length.  Thickness  exceeding  half  of  the 
length.      Ratio,   length,   width,   thickness  =    0.4:0.26:0.24        Marrow 

Seed  0.4  to  0.48  inch  in  length.  Thickness  less  than  half  of  the  length.  Ratio, 
length,   width,   thickness  =  0.4  :  0.27  :  0.20  Medium 

Seed  0.3  inch  or  less  in  length.  Not  reniform.  Ratio,  length,  width,  thick- 
ness =  0.4  :  0.29  :  0.24  Pea 

Using  this  key,  the  field  beans  were  classified  as  follows : 

Kidney  Group:  White  Kidney,  Red  Kidney. 

Marrow  Group:   Brown    (Swedish  select).   Old  Fashion  Yellow   Eye,  Improved 

Yellow   Eye,   Marrow. 
Medium  Group:   Day's  Leafless,  York  State  Medium,  and  Blue  Pod  Medium. 
Pea   Group:    California    Small    White,    Rice,    Marrow    Pea,    California   Wonder, 

Boston  Small  Pea,  American  Wonder,  York  State  Pea. 

Probably  the  larger  quantity  of  the  beans  grown  belongs  to 
the  pea  group;  then  follow  in  order  of  production  the  medium, 
kidney,  and  marrow  groups.  Co-operative  experiments  con- 
ducted by  the  Cornell  Station  indicate  that  in  New  York  State 
the  pea  and  medium  beans  outyield  the  marrow  and  kidney 
types.^ 

265.  Distribution  and  Yield. — Field  beans  are  grown  prin- 
cipally in  southern  Michigan  and  western  New  York.  The 
total  production  in  the  United  States  in  1899  was  5,064,844 
bushels  from  453,867  acres,  an  average  of  11. 2  bushels  per 
acre.  The  legal  weight  per  bushel  in  most  of  the  states  is  60 
pounds.  In  1899  the  farm  price  ranged  from  one  to  two  dol- 
lars per  bushel  in  different  states. 

The  total  area  devoted  to  field  beans  in  Ontario,  Canada, 
is  about  50,000  acres  annually.  The  average  yield  of  six  high 
yielding  varieties  at  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College  for  nine 
years  was  21.8  bushels.^ 

iNew  York  Cornell  Sta.  Bui.  No.  210  (1903),  p.  243. 

*  Ontario   Agricultural    College    and    Experimental    Farm    Rpt.    1905,    p.    193. 


LEGUMES   FOR   SEED  223 

Variations  in  measured  weight  per  bushel  ranged  from  57  to 
65.7  pounds;  while  12  out  of  13  varieties  gave  upwards  of  62 
pounds  per  measured  bushel  in  the  average  of  eight  years'  ex- 
periments.^ The  result  of  one  season's  test  of  four  varieties 
on  one-fortieth-acre  plats  on  a  loam  soil  of  good  quality  in  Ot- 
tawa indicated  an  average  yield  of  32.2  bushels  per  acre,  with 
an  average  weight  of  63  pounds  per  measured  bushel  after 
cleaning." 

The  producers  generally  sell  to  dealers  by  sample  on  the 
basis  of  the  percentage  of  perfect  seeds.  The  dealers  sort  the 
seeds  partly  by  machinery  and  partly  by  hand,  before  placing 
them  on  the  general  market. 

266.  Adaptation. — Field  beans  do  best  in  cool,  moist  cli- 
mates. East  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  the  climate  south  of  the 
forty-first  parallel  is  unsuited  to  their  growth.  While  influ- 
enced more  by  climate  than  by  soil,  yet  field  beans  succeed  best 
on  loam  and  especially  on  calcareous  soils.  Neither  very  heavy 
clays  nor  light  sands  are  adapted  to  their  growth.  Nor  are 
soils  which  are  made  light  by  a  superabundance  of  organic  mat- 
ter desirable,  since  such  soils  produce  a  rank  growth  of  vine, 
which  is  subject  to  disease,  and  whose  seeds  ripen  unevenly. 
Land  which  will  produce  good  maize  and  good  wheat  is  suited  to 
beans;  but  heavy  clays,  which  are  good  for  wheat  but  not  for 
maize,  and  light  soils  that  are  good  for  maize  but  not  for 
wheat,  are  not  desirable  for  beans. 

While  beans  will  grow  on  relatively  poor  soil,  yet  for  profit- 
able production,  they  require  one  that  is  fairly  fertile.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  the  larger  beans,  kidney  and  marrow,  require  a 
richer  soil  for  profitable  production  than  the  smaller  medium 
and  pea  beans.  The  rotation  usually  practised  is  beans,  wheat, 
clover,  each  one  year;  or  maize  or  potatoes,  beans,  wheat,  and 

1  Ontario  Agricultural  College  Bui.  No.  140   (1905),  p.  26. 
-  Experimental  Farms  Rpts.   1905,  p.   226. 


224  THE   FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

clover.  In  these  rotations,  the  pea  and  medium  beans  have  the 
advantage,  since  they  mature  earlier  than  the  larger  sorts, 
and  thus  permit  the  thorough  preparation  of  the  soil  for  wheat. 
Fall  or  early  spring  plowing  and  thorough  fitting  of  the  soil 
is  desirable  for  this  crop.  Since  the  crop  is  a  late  sown  one,  the 
tendency  is  to  delay  the  plowing,  much  to  the  detriment  of  the 
crop. 

267.  Planting. — In  general,  kidney  beans  should  be  planted 
in  the  latter  half  of  May;  medium  and  pea  beans  from  June 
5  to  20,  and  marrows  in  between.  There  is  danger  of  too  early 
planting.  Beans  are  a  tender  plant.  They  are  killed  by  light 
frost,  and  the  seeds  are  likely  to  rot  in  the  ground,  if  it  is  wet 
and  cold.  When  they  start  under  unfavorable  conditions,  the 
strongest  and  best  plants  germinate  first,  producing  an  unequal 
growth,  and  causing  an  unequal  ripening.  Field  beans  are  usu- 
ally planted  in  drills.  The  pea  and  medium  type  are  planted 
with  the  ordinary  grain  drill,  stopping  the  tubes  that  are  not 
needed;  thus,  with  a  drill  having  hoes  seven  inches  apart,  the 
rows  may  be  28  to  35  inches  apart.  Special  bean  planters  are 
used  for  kidney  beans.  The  number  of  seeds  per  pound  varies 
with  the  types  about  as  follows:  kidney,  780;  marrow,  1,000; 
medium,  1,400;  pea,  2,200.  The  amount  of  seed  used  varies 
from  two  to  three  pecks  with  pea  beans  to  five  or  six  pecks  with 
kidney  beans.  Great  care  should  be  exercised  to  secure  seed 
free  from  anthracnose,  and  not  infested  with  bean  weevil. 
(270,  271) 

268.  Culture. — ^The  cultivation  is  similar  to  that  given  to 
maize ;  but  more  care  is  required,  since  the  young  plants  are  ten- 
der and  easily  broken.  In  order  to  keep  weeds  from  starting, 
especially  in  the  row,  the  land  should  be  harrowed  one  or  more 
times  before  the  beans  come  up.  After  the  plants  have  dropped 
their  beans  (cotyledons)  they  should  be  cultivated,  running  as 
close  to  the  row  as  possible,  covering  the  weeds  in  the  row;  if 


LEGUMES   FOR   SEED  22$ 

the  beans  are  covered  with  mellow  earth  at  this  time,  they  will 
usually  come  through  again  without  injury.  By  harrowing 
before  the  plants  are  up,  and  by  careful  cultivation  at  the  right 
time,  hand  hoeing  may  be  largely,  if  not  entirely,  avoided. 

As  the  plants  become  older,  they  should  not  be  cultivated  while 
the  leaves  are  wet  with  dew  or  rain,  for  fear  of  spreading  an- 
thracnose.  When  dry,  the  anthracnose  spores  are  held  fast  by  a 
gummy  substance,  but  which  is  at  once  dissolved  by  water,  thus 
setting  free  the  spores.  Any  disturbance  of  the  plant  when  wet 
will  therefore  scatter  the  spores  and  spread  the  disease/     If 


Bean  harvester.    It  gathers  two  rows  at  a  time  and  bunches  the  vines  by  means  of 
attached  rake 

the  field  had  been  thoroughly  "tended,"  it  is  best  not  to  culti- 
vate after  beans  come  in  blossoms;  if  necessary  to  cultivate 
later,  wait  until  the  blossoms  have  set. 

269.  Harvesting. — Beans  may  be  pulled  by  hand,  but  the 
bean  harvester  which  pulls  or  cuts  two  rows  at  a  time  is  now 
generally  used.  As  pulled,  they  are  collected  in  small  piles. 
Subsequently  they  are  placed  in  larger  piles,  and  when  dry 
are  stored  in  the  barn.  If  wet  weather  ensues,  the  piles  must  be 
turned  frequently,  since  if  the  pods  remain  in  contact  with  the 
ground  seeds  are  discolored  and  their  sale  injured. 

iNew  York  Cornell  Sta.  Bui.  No.  239   (1906),  p.  204. 


226 


THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


270.  Diseases.— Three  diseases  occur  rather  commonly  on  field  beans.  In 
order  of  their  abundance  and  destruction  they  are:  anthracnose  or  pod  spot 
iColletotrichum  lindemuthianum  (Sacc.  and  Magn.)  Bri.  and  Cav.);  bean 
blight  {Bacterium  phaseoli  Erw.  Sm.)  and  bean  rust  (Uromyces  appendicularis 
(Pers.)    Link.). 

Anthracnose  is  a  fungous  disease  known  by  its  brown  or  black  spots  on 
stems,  pods,  or  leaves.  The  disease  also  affects  the  seeds,  which  show  reddish- 
brown  or  black  spots  and  are  often  shrunken  or  shriveled.     The  seed  harbors 


Anrnracnosf  CanRer 


Anrhracnose  Spores 
much  maqtiified,^  /a 


eedCo«r 


Storcll  Graius 


The  relation  of  the  anthracnose  fungus  to  the  tissues  of  the  bean.  To  the  left  above  is 
diagram  of  a  section  across  a  bean  pod  through  an  anthracnose  canker.  The  large  draw- 
ing below  is  a  much  enlarged  view  of  a  portion  of  this  same  section.  It  is  largely  dia- 
grammatic. It  shows  how  the  mycelial  threads  of  the  fungus  may  penetrate  the  seed  coat 
and  enter  the  starchy  tissue  of  the  seed,  there  to  remain  dormant  until  the  following 
season.  On  the  left  of  the  large  drawing  is  shown  a  spore  germinating  and  penetrating 
the  epidermis.  This  germ  tube  branches,  spreads  through  the  tissues  of  the  pod  and 
so  gives  rise  to  a  new  spot  or  canker.  To  the  right  above  is  shown  a  magnified  view  of 
some  of  the  spores  of  the  anthracnose  fungus.  One  has  germinated. 
(After  Whetzel) 


the  fungus,  which  develops  on  the  cotyledons  of  the  young  seedling,  from 
which  it  may  spread  to  older  and  healthy  plants.  It  is  a  destructive  and 
much-dreaded  disease.  Three  steps  in  combating  this  disease  are  recommended: 
the  selection  of  disease-free  seed,  the  removal  of  diseased  seedlings,  and 
spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture.  Seeds  themselves  have  not  been  successfully 
treated,  because  the  fungus  is  embedded  in  the  seed,  and  thus  far  no  sub- 
stance has  been  found  which  will  destroy  the  fungus  without  injury  to  the 
germination  of  the  seed.  Since  the  disease  is  from  without  and  local  to  the 
spot  attacked,  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  spraying  with  a  fungicide  is  the 
best    means    of    preventing   this    disease.      The    Cornell    Station    recommends    5 


LEGUMES   FOR   SEED 


227 


pounds  of  copper  sulphate,  4  pounds  of  stone  lime  to  50  gallons  of  water.* 
Too  strong  a  solution  may  injure  the  plant.  The  first  application  should  be 
made  when  the  first  pair  of  true  leaves  begins  to  unfold,  about  two  weeks 
later,  and  again  when  pods  are  forming.  Lands  for  beans  should  not  receive 
manure  made  by  feeding  bean   straw,   especially  if  the  straw  is  diseased. 

Bean  blight  is  a  bacterial  disease,  producing  on  the  leaves  and  pods  large 
watery  patches.  On  the  leaves  the  spots  become  dry  and  brittle,  and  on  the 
pods  soft  and  rotten,  but  not  shrunken  and  black,  as  in  anthracnose.  The 
pods  are  not  destroyed  unless  attacked  when  they  are  young,  but  the  bacteria 
may  gain  entrance  to  healthy  appearing  seeds,  and  thus 
propagate  the  disease  when  these  seeds  are  planted.  It  is 
much  less  common  and  destructive  than  anthracnose.  There 
is  no  demonstrated  method  of  combating  the  disease.  Seeds 
which  have  come  from  affected  fields  should  not  be  planted, 
and  the  tops  from  such  fields  should  be  destroyed  by  fire, 
and  the  fields  so  affected  should  not  be  used  for  beans  for 
some  years,  although  the  length  of  time  a  field  may  remain 
infested  is  not  known.  Spraying  as  for  anthracnose,  but 
oftener,   is,   however,   recommended. 

Bean  rust  is  a  fungous  disease  occurring  principally  on 
the  under  side  of  the  leaves,  and  rarely  upon  the  stems  or 
the  pods,  producing  small  rusty-brown  or  black  spots.  It  is 
rarely  destructive.  As  the  disease  winters  in  the  old  leaves, 
burning  the  tops  is  recommended.  It  is  said  to  be  combated 
by  spraying  as  for  anthracnose.  This  disease  also  occurs  on 
the  cowpea.2  The  downy  mildew  (Phytophthora  phaseoli 
Thax.),  occurring  on  lima  beans,  has  not  been  reported  on 
field  beans. 


^ean  seedling 
showing  the 
an  t hracnose 
spots  on  stem 
and  seed 
leaves. 

(After    Halsted) 


271.  Insects. — While  there  are  a  number  of  insects, 
which  may  damage  field  beans,  such  as  bean  leafbeetle,  bean 
ladybird,  blister  beetles,  cutworms  and  other  caterpillars, 
plant-bugs,  leaf-hoppers  and  plant  lice,  the  special  and  most 
destructive  enemy  of  the  bean  is  the  common  *bean  weevil 
(Bruchus  obtectus  Say).'  This  insect  and  the  fungus,  an- 
thracnose, are  the  two  great  obstructions  to  the  culture  of  beans.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  raise  field  beans  extensively  south  of  the  forty-first  parallel  on  account 
of  the  attacks  of  this  insect,  even  were  the  climate  suitable.  It  indeed  may  be  a 
question  whether  it  is  the  climate  or  this  insect  which  restricts  its  culture.  The 
bean  weevil  is  a  brownish  beetle  about  one-eighth  inch  in  length.  The  eggs  are 
laid  in  the  green  pods  in  the  fields.  The  larvae  find  their  way  into  the  maturing 
beans  and  continue  to  breed  in  the  stored  seed.  A  large  number  may  develop  in 
a  seed.     They  are  thus  capable  of  exhausting  fhe  bean  and  ruining  it  for  any 


iNew  York  Cornell  Sta.  Bui.  No.  239    (1906),  p.  207. 

*Iowa  Sta.  BuL  No.  61    (1902),  p.  139. 

'"Insects    injurious    to    beans    and  peas";    in    U.    S.    Dept.    Agr.    Yearbook 
1898,  p.  233. 


228  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

purpose.  The  entire  life  cycle  varies  according  to  season  and  locality,  more 
particularly  the  temperature  of  the  storeroom,  from  21  to  80  days.  Chittenden 
estimates  six  generations  in  a  latitude  such  as  the  District  of  Columbia,  with 
a  less  number  farther  north.  Insects  may  be  destroyed  in  the  infested  seeds 
without  injury  to  the  germinating  power  by  fumigating  with  bisulphide  of 
carbon  at  the  rate  of  one  ounce  to  every  hundred  pounds  of  beans;  or  by 
heating  to  a  temperature  of  145°  F.;  or  by  soaking  seed  for  one  minute  in 
boiling  water.  Badly  injured  seed  will  float  in  water,  and  may  be  removed  and 
destroyed.  No  other  efficient  means  of  preventing  a  field  from  being  attacked 
has  been  found. 

272.     Threshing. —  A  special  type  of  thresher  is  required  for 
threshing  beans  and  peas.    When  the  bean  pods  are  thoroughly- 


Sectional  view  of  bean  thresher.    Note  the  two  cylinders 

dry,  the  seeds  are  readily  separated  from  the  pods,  and  are 
easily  split.  When  damp,  the  seeds  are  separated  from  the 
pods  with  difficulty,  and  the  seeds  are  less  easily  split.  If  the 
pods  in  a  load  of  beans  were  all  of  equal  dryness,  they  could 
be  threshed  fairly  well  by  speeding  the  cylinder  of  the 
thresher  to  suit  the  state  of  dryness;  but  if,  as  usually  happens, 
the  pods  vary  as  to  dryness,  no  speed  of  the  cylinder  will  be 
best  for  all.  If  the  speed  is  too  high,  some  will  be  split;  if  too 
low,  not  all  the  beans  will  be  obtained.  This  difficulty  is  met 
in  bean  threshers  and  pea  hullers  by  having  two  cylinders  run 
at  different  rates  of  speed.  The  beans  are  run  through  a  cyl- 
inder at  low  speed,  which  threshes  out  the  dry  pods,  the  seeds 
of  which  are  thoroughly  screened  out  before  the  partly  threshed 
material  comes  to  the  second  cylinder  run  at  a  higher  rate  of 


LEGUMES    FOR    SEED  229 

speed.  Skill  in  adjusting  the  speed  of  the  machine  to  the  con- 
dition of  the  beans  to  be  threshed  is  essential,  in  order  to  get 
all  the  beans  without  splitting  any. 

Beans,  being  an  annual,  thinly  planted,  inter-tilled  crop,  do 
not  have  the  stubble  to  keep  them  off  the  soil;  consequently  a 
good  deal  of  dirt  and,  sometimes,  stones  are  picked  up  with  the 
vines  which  are  to  be  threshed.  Special  devices  for  removing 
the  dirt  and  special  precautions  against  the  breakage  due  to 
stones  are  therefore  required.  Some  bean  threshers  have  re- 
cleaners  attached  which  break  up  the  lumps  of  dirt  and  sepa- 
rate the  material  after  it  has  thus  been  made  fine.  Less  beans 
are  split  when  they  are  threshed  with  a  flail,  and  although  it  is 
much  slower,  some  prefer  this  method. 

273.  History  and  Use. — Commercial  bean  growing  in  the 
United  States  may  be  said  to  have  begun  in  Orleans  County, 
New  York,  in  1839.^  The  production  of  beans  was  given  an  im- 
petus in  the  early  sixties,  because  of  their  use  in  the  army  and 
navy,  and  more  recently  to  a  less  extent  by  the  Spanish-Ameri- 
can War.  The  recent  practise  of  canning  beans  has  also  ex- 
tended their  use.  Beans  are  not  much  used  for  domestic  animals, 
although  they  are  employed  for  this  purpose  somewhat  more 
largely  in  Canada  than  in  the  United  States.  Locally,  however, 
cull  beans  may  be  obtained  at  a  price  that  makes  them  an  econom- 
ical and  desirable  food.  They  may  be  fed  raw  to  sheep,  but  must 
be  cooked  in  order  to  be  eaten  by  cattle  or  swine.  Bean  straw, 
when  fed  in  connection  with  other  foods,  makes  a  fairly  desira- 
ble food  for  sheep  and  dairy  cattle.  It  contains  a  higher  per- 
centage of  protein  than  timothy  hay.  It  is  laxative  when  fed 
too  freely. 


1  History  of  the  bean  industry;   in  Transactions  N.  Y.   State  Agr.   Soc.  for 
1897,  p.  323. 


230  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

II.     FIELD    PEAS 

274.  Relationships. — The  field  pea  (Pisiim  sativum,  var. 
arvense  Poir  (F.  arvcnse  L.),  also  known  as  Canada  field  peas, 
differs  slightly  from  the  garden  pea  {P.  sativum  L.).  Field 
peas  usually  have  violet  flowers  and  smaller  gray  or  buff  seeds, 
which  are  rather  angular,  but  not  wrinkled,  while  garden  peas 
have  white  flowers,  and  whiter  and  more  globular  seeds,  which 
may  be  either  smooth  or  wrinkled.  Of  the  two  types,  field 
peas  are  rather  the  more  hardy,  and  perhaps  the  more  upright 
in  habit. 

275.  Description. — The  field  pea  has  hollow,  sparingly 
branched  stems  two  to  six,  usually  three  to  five,  feet  long,  with 
leaves  six  or  more  inches  long,  bearing  usually  two  or  three 
pairs  of  leaflets  one  or  two  inches  long,  with  large  leafy  stipules 
at  the  base,  and  one  or  more  pairs  of  tendrils  at  the  upper  end, 
the  tip  of  the  midrib  terminating  in  a  tendril.  The  young  plants 
are  erect,  but  as  they  grow  older  they  become  decumbent  un- 
less they  are  supported.  While  the  plant  has  a  vine-like  habit 
of  growth,  it  is  not  twining,  but  climbs  by  means  of  leaf  ten- 
drils. Two  or  more  rather  large  flowers  are  borne  in  the  axils 
of  the  leaves  on  flower  stalks,  which  are  shorter  than  the  leaves. 
The  pistil  grows  into  a  rather  flat,  many-seeded  legume  two  to 
four  inches  long.  All  the  vegetative  portions  of  the  plant  are 
smooth  and  glaucous,  and  the  tissues  succulent;  in  the  green 
state  these  portions  are  especially  well  liked  by  domestic  ani- 
mals. 

At  the  North  Dakota  Station  it  was  found  that  the  plants  86 
days  old  having  vines  5.5  feet  long,  had  roots  reaching  three 
feet  in  depth,  though  rather  sparingly  supplied  with  branches 
and  fibers.  Most  of  the  fibrous  roots  were  within  eight  to  ten 
inches  of  the  surface^.    The  Michigan  Station  reports  that  Gol- 

1  North  Dakota  Sta.  Bui.  No.  43    (1900),  p.  535. 


LEGUMES   FOR   SEED  23 1 

den  Vine  field  pea  produced  stem  vines  averaging  9.5  feet  in 
length.'  The  Utah  Station  found  with  the  Golden  Vine  variety 
the  greatest  yield  of  both  green  and  dry  matter  was  when  the 
plant  was  in  flower,  the  yield  of  water-free  substance  being: 
whole  plant,  4,997,  leaves  2,347,  stalks  1,391,  and  flowers  259 
pounds.  Two  weeks  later,  when  the  pods  were  mature,  the 
yield  of  water-free  substance  was:  whole  plant  3,496,  leaves 
1,699,  stalks  698,  and  pods  1,108  pounds.  The  percentage  of 
leaves  decreased  from  youth  to  maturity;  the  percentage  of 
stalk  increased  until  the  pods  began  to  form,  when  it  then 
decreased.^ 

276.  Varieties. — Among  33  varieties  at  the  Minnesota  Station,  the  best 
yield  of  grain  was  obtained  from  White  Canada  Field,  20.3  bushels.  Other 
varieties,  Alpha,  Blue  Prussian,  Crown,  and  Green  Canada  Field,  held  good 
rank,  none  of  these  falling  below  17  bushels  per  acre.  The  lowest  yield  of 
any  variety  was  11.1  bushels.  Most  of  the  varieties  matured  within  90  days, 
the  extremes  being  79  and  100  days.  In  fourteen  tests  of  two  varieties,  the 
Canada  Station  found  Early  Britain  to  lead  with  32.6  bushels  of  grain  and 
1.7  tons  of  straw  per  acre.'  After  an  experience  with  about  100  varieties 
lasting  over  a  period  of  fifteen  years,  the  Ontario  Station  *  makes  the  following 
recommendations,  based  principally  on  grain  production:  for  very  rich  soil. 
White  Wonder;  for  soil  of  medium  quality.  Early  Britain  and  New  Canadian 
Beauty;  for  poorer  soils,  Prussian  Blue  and  Tall  White  Marrowfat.  Among 
the  most  productive  sorts  grown  for  five  years  at  the  Canadian  Experimental 
Farms  are  Golden  Vine,  Victoria,  Mackay,  White  Wonder,  Prince,  Canada 
Beauty    and    Prussian    Blue.^ 

Of  three  varieties  tested  by  the  Massachusetts  Hatch  Station,  there  was 
little  difference  in  yield  of  green  pea  vine  between  Prussian  Blue  and  Canada 
Beauty,  while  English  Gray  was  rather  low.  At  the  Wyoming  Station,  Golden 
Vine  and  Mexican  matured  in  August,  while  White  Canadian  and  Green 
Canadian  matured  in  September.  The  varieties  most  frequently  mentioned 
by  other  stations  are  Golden  Vine,   Prussian  Blue  and  Canada  Beauty. 

277.  Distribution. — While  peas  have  been  rather  extensively 
raised  for  their  seeds  in  Canada  as  well  as  in  Europe,  in  the 

1  Michigan  Sta.  Spec.  Bui.  No.  28   (1904). 
'Utah  Sta.  Bui.  No.  69  (1900),  p.  313, 
3  Canada  Experimental  Farms  Rpts.   1893,  p.  328. 
*  Ontario  Agr.  Col.  Bui.  No.  140   (1903),  p.  25. 
^  Canada  Experimental  Farms  Rpts.   1905,  p.  223. 


232  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

United  States  they  have  been  less  largely  grown.  For  this  pur- 
pose they  are  less  extensively  grown  in  the  United  States  than 
are  field  beans  or  cowpeas.  Michigan  and  Wisconsin  raise 
field  peas  most  extensively,  the  average  yield  in  1899  being 
about  16  bushels  per  acre.  In  Canada  35  and  40  bushels  per 
acre  are  reported  in  individual  instances.  The  legal  weight  per 
bushel  in  Canada  and  in  the  United  States  is  60  pounds. 

For  soiling,  dry  forage,  or  mixed  grain,  field  peas  mixed  with 
oats  are  grown  in  relatively  small  quantities.  (C.  A.,  405) 
They  deserve,  in  the  northern  portions  of  the  United  States 
and  throughout  Canada,  a  wider  use  for  this  purpose.  Owing 
to  the  ravages  of  the  pea  weevil,  the  acreage  of  field  peas  in 
Canada  in  recent  years  has  become  greatly  reduced.     (280) 

278.  Adaptation. — Any  soil  that  will  raise  oats  will  raise 
field  peas,  although  like  other  legumes,  field  peas  will  do  best 
on  calcareous  soils.  Sandy  soils  are  better  than  clay  soils. 
Those  cool,  moist  climates  in  which  oats  find  their  best  devel- 
opment are  also  best  for  field  peas.  Artificial  inoculation  has 
not  ordinarily  been  found  necessary,  but  the  Alabama  Station 
found  in  pots  an  increase  of  200  per  cent,  in  yield  of  vines 
through  inoculation  as  compared  with  plants  in  which  no  inocu- 
lation occurred.^ 

279.  Seeding. — The  pea  has  a  high  germinating  power,  and 
will  germinate  at  quite  a  low  temperature.  In  order  to  get  the 
largest  amount  of  growth  possible  in  the  coolest  and  moistest 
portions  of  the  year,  the  seeds  should  be  sown  as  early  in  the 
spring  as  the  soil  will  permit.  One  reason  sandy  soils  are 
better  than  clay  soils  is  that  the  former  permit  earlier  sowing. 
For  the  same  reason  fall  plowing  is  desirable. 

Peas  do  best  when  sown  quite  deeply.  If  sown  broadcast,  cov- 
ering with  a  disk  harrow  or  by  light  plowing  is  recommended. 
Usually,  perhaps,  the  ordinary  grain  drill  is  preferable,  pro- 

1  Alabama  Sta.  Bui.  No.  87   (1897),  p.  472. 


LEGUMES    FOR    SEED  233 

vided  care  is  taken  to  use  one  that  does  not  split  the  seeds 
while  planting,  which,  sometimes  occurring,  causes  quite  a 
reduction  in  the  stand.  The  rate  of  seeding  varies  from  1.5  to 
3.5  bushels  per  acre/  The  Ontario  Station,  after  testing  for 
six  years,  found  that  by  selecting  seed  for  sowing,  the  results 
showed  an  average  of  28.1  bushels  per  acre  from  large  seed, 
and  23  bushels  from  small  seed/ 

280.  Diseases  and  Insects. — Diseases  rarely  do  much  damage  to  field  peas. 
Field  peas  are  sometimes  severely  damaged  by  blight  (Ascochyta  pisi  Lib.) 
and  occasionally  attacked  by  the  powdery  mildew  (Erysiphe  polygoni  D.  C). 
The  latter  may  be  checked  by  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture.  In  the  absence 
of  a  successful  remedy  for  the  former,  planting  sound  seed  in  soil  free  of 
tlie  fungus  may  serve  as  a  prevention.^  While  other  insect  attacks  occasionally 
occur,  the  one  enemy  to  pea  culture,  and  especially  to  the  production  of 
sound  seed,  is  the  pea  weevil  (Bruchus  pisorutn  L.).  This  is  larger  than  the 
bean  weevil,  being  about  one-fifth  inch  long.  This  insect  lays  its  eggs  upon 
the  young  pea  pods,  which  upon  hatching  burrow  into  the  pea,  never  more 
than  one  weevil  to  each  pea,  where,  as  the  seeds  mature,  it  lives  and  develops 
into  an  adult  beetle.  In  the  green  peas,  the  minute  dot  by  which  the  larva 
entered  is  not  ordinarily  noticed  and  consequently  the  larvae  are  often  con- 
sumed in  large  numbers.  In  dry  seeds,  the  cell  inhabited  by  the  insect  may 
be  seen  under  the  skin,  while  later  the  adults  bore  holes  in  the  skin  through 
which  they  escape.  Unlike  the  bean  weevil,  they  do  not  breed  in  dry  seed, 
and  there  is  only  one  generation;  hence  if  prevented  from  laying  their  eggs 
upon  the  pea  pods,   they  must  perish. 

Advantage  is  taken  of  this  fact  in  two  ways:  (1)  If  infested  seed  is  held 
in  a  tight  receptacle  until  the  second  year,  all  insects  perish,  and  the  seed 
may  be  planted  without  being  the  source  of  the  insects.  Infested  seed,  how- 
ever, is  very  low  in  germinating  power,  and  seed  which  germinate  are  often 
mutilated  and  of  little  value.  (2)  If  seed  are  planted  late  after  the  breeding 
of  the  insects,  peas  may  escape  attack  and  sound  seed  may  be  secured.  In- 
sects may  be  destroyed,  also,  by  the  same  means  mentioned  for  the  bean 
weevil.  (271)  The  pea  weevil  is  less  active  in  the  northern  tier  of  states 
and  in  Canada,  which  accounts,  in  part,  at  least,  for  the  culture  of  field  peas 
being  restricted  largely  to   that   region. 

In  Canada  it  was  found  that  by  suspending  culture  of  the  crop,  at  the 
end  of  three  years  the  weevil  was  almost  completely  eradicated.  Treating 
with  carbon  bisulphide  immediately  after  threshing  has  also  resulted  in  their 
complete    destruction.*      Spraying    the   vines    with    Paris    green    just    after    the 

1  For  method  of  seeding  with  oats,  see  (C.  A.  405). 

2  Ontario  Agr.  Col.  and  Expt.   Farm  Rpt.   1905,  p.   191. 

3  Ohio   Sta.   BuL   No.    173    (1906),   pp.   233-246. 

*  Ontario  Agr.  Col.  and  Expt.  Farm  Rpt.  1905,  p.  191. 


234  THE   FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

pods  were   formed   was   not   found   effective,   but   early  varieties   of   peas  were 
found  much  less  liable  to  be  injured  than  later   sorts.^ 

281.  Harvesting. — Because  of  their  prostrate  habit  of 
growth,  and  because  of  the  readiness  with  which  the  drying 
and  dried  pods  open  and  scatter  their  seeds,  the  harvesting  is 
rather  difficult.     They  may  be  cut  with  the  ordinary  mowing- 

/    /    /       iff  machine,    and    raked    into 

III       III  P^^^^    ^\\~\\.   a    sulky    rake. 

If/         III  using  only  one  end  of  the 

y    y    V         V    V  V  rake,    in    order    that    the 

;  iXj^^^N|-j^JSjS^^^  horse  may  not  walk  upon 

1|  rTw^fflFrWw^^^^^^^^fefe!*.  the  vines,   A  pea  harvester 

11    H     n   ll\    m   u^^^^^"-  attachment    is    sometimes 

|}\^  *  ^H^'^'^^  ^1/  used.     It  is  customary  to 

„    ,         ,       .XI. ,-     I.      ..   1.  o  harvest    when    two-thirds 

Pea  harvester  with  buncher  attached 

of  the  pods  are  yellow. 
When  dried  they  may  be  stacked  under  cover,  or  threshed  imme- 
diately with  a  pea  huller  or  with  the  ordinary  thresher,  although 
the  latter  chops  the  straw  or  haulms  rather  fine.     {2.'j2) 

282.  Uses. — Native  of  Italy,  the  field  pea  has  been  culti- 
vated for  many  centuries,  chiefly  for  its  grain.  The  straw  is 
especially  prized  by  the  Canadian  shepherds.  Peas  may  be  used 
whole  or  ground  into  meal,  when  they  make  excellent  food 
for  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine.  Pea  flour  is  an  ingredient  of  food 
preparations  for  infants,  invalids,  and  others,  and  split  peas, 
freed  from  the  hulls,  are  used  in  soups  and  other  culinary 
articles.    Varieties  of  the  field  types  are  also  used  for  canning. 


283.  Description. — The  peanut  plant  (Arachis  hypogaea 
L.)   "is  a  trailing  annual,  growing  from  one  to  two  feet  high, 

1  Canada  Experimental  Farms  Rpts.   1905,  p.  311. 

2  This  section  on  peanuts  is  largely  drawn  from  "The  Peanut  Plant,"  by 
B.  W.  Jones:  Orange  Judd  Company,  and  "Peanut:  Culture  and  Uses,"  by 
R.  B.  Handy:  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,   Farmers'   Bui.  No.  25. 


LEGUMES   FOR   SEED 


235 


with  thick,  angular,  pale-green,  hairy  stems  and  spreading 
branches,  and  has  the  peculiar  habit  of  maturing  its  fruit 
underground."  After  the  blossom  falls,  the  ovulary  is  pushed 
into  the  ground  through  the  elongation  of  the  peduncle  or 
"spike,"  where  it  develops  into  the  well-known  pod,  one  to  two 
inches  long,  and  containing  one  to  four,  usually  two,  seeds. 
The  cinnamon-yellow  roots  are  abundantly  supplied  with  tuber- 
cles. 

284.  Composition. — The  peanut  kernel  is  characterized  by 
its  high  percentage  of  fat,  and  when  the  oil  has  been  extracted, 
the  resulting  meal  is  characterized  by  its  high  percentage  of 
protein,  as  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Food  Constituents  in  Different  Parts  of  Peanut  Kernel 


In   Water-free   Substance 

Parts 

Water 

Ash 

Protein 

Fiber 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 

Fat 

Peanut  kernels 

Peanut  meal 

Peanut  vines,  cut  before 

blooming 
Peanut    vines,    cut    when 

fruit  was  ripe    . 

7.9 
10.7 

31.2 

31.9 

2.8 
5.5 

10.7 

12.1 

29.5 
52.5 

12.6 

10.8 

4.3 
5.9 

22.3 

32.3 

14.2 
27.3 

48.3 

39.8 

49.2 
8.8 

6.1 

5.0 

285.  Varieties. — Peanuts  may  be  classified  according  to  their 
habit  of  growth  into  running  and  bunching  varieties ;  according 
to  the  redness  of  their  skin  (testa)  into  white  and  red  varie- 
ties; and  according  to  the  size  of  the  pods.  In  general,  two 
well-defined  types  are  recognized:  those  with  large  pods,  usu- 
ally sold  for  roasting,  as  "Virginia  hand-picked"  peanuts,  and 
those  with  small  pods,  known  as  Spanish  peanuts.  The  Span- 
ish variety  has  a  relatively  small,  upright  vine,  which  permits 
closer  planting  than  in  the  running,  large  podded  varieties. 
The  Spanish  peanut  is  not  ordinarily  sold  in  the  shell,  but  is 


236 


THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


used  shelled  by  confectioners.  It  is  also  recommended  as  a 
forage  plant,  having  a  wider  climatic  and  soil  adaptation  than 
the  larger  varieties. 

The  Arkansas  Station  states  that  as  a  hog  food  nothing  has 
been   found   which   will   more   cheaply   produce   gain   than   the 


The  mature  peanut  plant  showing  the  ripened  fruit  and  the  many-branched  tap  root 
with  tubercles 
(After  Handy) 

Spanish  peanut.  One-fourth  acre  of  peanuts  produced  313 
pounds  of  pork,  while  the  same  area  of  maize  produced  109 
pounds.  At  the  Alabama  Station,  503  pounds  gain  of  pork  per 
acre  was  made  in  six  weeks  upon  peanut  pastures  alone.^ 

286.  Distribution  and  Yield. — There  were  grown  in  1899 
about  twelve  million  bushels  of  peanuts  on  about  one-half 
million  acres,  or  about  23  bushels  per  acre.  Fifty  bushels  per 
acre  of  the  large  podded  sorts  are  considered  a  satisfactory 
yield.  The  Arkansas  Station  produced  144  bushels  of  Spanish 
peanuts  on  a  highly  fertile  soil,  while  on  a  less  fertile  soil  the 
Virginia  white  variety  yielded  114  bushels  per  acre,  and  the 
Spanish  yielded  109  bushels.  After  the  nuts  have  been  har- 
vested, a  yield  of  one  to  three  tons  of  hay  may  be  obtained.  A 
bushel  of  the  large  podded  varieties  weighs  22  pounds  and  yields 

I  Arkansas  Sta.  Bui.  No.  84   (1904),  p.   120. 


LEGUMES   FOR   SEED  237 

15  to  17  pounds  of  kernels,  while  a  bushel  of  Spanish  peanuts 
weighs  30  pounds  and  yields  about  20  pounds  of  kernels. 

Peanuts  are  produced  principally  in  the  South  Atlantic 
states,  and  in  Alabama  and  Tennessee.  About  one-half  the  total 
production  comes  from  southern  Virginia  and  North  Carolina. 
The  production  is  increasing  rapidly,  it  having  trebled  in  the 
past  decade. 

287.  Adaptation. — The  peanut  requires  at  least  five  months 
without  frost,  a  hot,  moist  summer,  and,  for  good  market  quality, 
but  little  rainfall  during  harvest.  A  loam  soil  containing  an 
abundance  of  lime  and  not  too  large  quantity  of  humus  is  best. 
Where  lime  is  deficient  there  will  be  a  large  proportion  of 
empty  pods  or  "pops,"  and  where  humus  is  excessive  the  plant 
has  a  tendency  to  "run  to  vine."  A  sandy  soil  free  from  iron 
produces  the  best  market  quality,  because  pods  are  less  likely 
to  become  stained,  but  does  not  necessarily  produce  better  yields 
than  soils  containing  more  clay.  The  Spanish  variety  may  be 
grown  for  forage  on  any  soil  on  which  maize  can  be  grown 
south  of  the  thirty-seventh  parallel  of  latitude. 

288.  Soil  Amendments. — If  the  soil  is  deficient  in  lime,  one 
ton  of  quick  lime  or  three  tons  of  marl  may  be  applied  per  acre. 
Applications  of  stable  manure  when  needed  are  best  applied 
to  the  previous  crop,  which  should  be  a  cultivated  one,  such  as 
maize,  cotton,  or  tobacco.  Phosphoric  and  potassic  rather  than 
nitrogenous  commercial  fertilizers  are  indicated.  Neverthe- 
less, fertilizer  formulas  sometimes  include  cotton  seed  meal  as 
well  as  acid  phosphate  and  kainit. 

289.  Planting. — The  soil  is  prepared  as  for  maize  or  pota- 
toes, although  perhaps  with  rather  more  care.  The  furrow  may 
be  opened  with  a  small  plow  two  to  three  and  one-half,  usually 
three,  feet  apart.  The  seeds  are  generally  planted  by  hand  four 
inches  to  two  feet  apart  in  the  row.  The  Arkansas  Station 
concludes  that  for  the  Spanish  variety  the  best  yields  will  be  ob- 


238  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

Lained  from  rows  30  inches  apart  with  the  peanut  four  to  twelve 
inches  apart  in  the  row.  In  some  cases  peanuts  are  planted  in 
hills  so  they  may  be  cultivated  both  ways.  The  seeds  are  cov- 
ered one  and  a  half  to  two  inches  deep  with  a  hoe  or  with  the 
foot.  Only  one  plant  in  a  place  is  desired,  but  in  some  cases 
two  seeds  are  planted.  Planting  should  occur  as  soon  as  all 
danger  from  late  frosts  is  over. 

"Spanish  peanuts  intended  for  grazing  by  hogs  may  be  planted  at  any  time 
after  danger  of  frost  is  over  on  to  the  first  or  middle  of  July  in  north 
Arkansas,  and  as  late  as  the  middle  of  August  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
state.  The  time  and  methods  of  planting  this  variety  of  peanuts  for  hog  feed 
is  quite  adjustable,  and  the  crop  may  be  associated  with  almost  any  system 
of  cropping  practised  in  the  South.  The  most  profitable  practises  with  this 
variety  consist  in  growing  the  peanuts  with  some  other  crop,  as  corn,  or  after 
some  crop  has  been  harvested."  ^ 

290.  Seed. — For  planting,  two  bushels  of  seed  in  the  pod  are 
required  per  acre.  Considerable  care  is  required  in  harvesting, 
storing,  and  selecting  suitable  seed  for  planting,  otherwise  the 
germination  is  likely  to  be  low.  In  the  case  of  the  larger  varie- 
ties, the  pods  are  removed  before  planting  by  hand,  care  being 
taken  not  to  break  the  skin.  The  Spanish  variety  may  be  planted 
without  shelling  or  after  merely  breaking  the  pods  in  two,  al- 
though this  is  not  a  desirable  practise. 

"A  test  made  at  Fayetteville  in  1900  gave  98  per  cent,  germination  from 
shelled,  91  per  cent,  from  pods  broken  in  two,  and  78  per  cent,  from  whole 
pods.  The  plots  planted  with  the  whole  pods  were  very  slow  in  sprouting, 
and  some  were  about  five  weeks  in  appearing  above  the  ground.  The  broken 
pods  did  better,  but  were  not  so  prompt  to  germinate  as  were  the  shelled  nuts. 
An  attempt  to  hull  several  varieties  of  peanuts  in  a  cowpea  huller  was  very 
unsuccessful  with  the  larger  Virginia  and  Tennessee  varieties,  but  gave  sat- 
isfactory results  with  the  Spanish.  About  20  per  cent,  were  split  by  the  pea 
huller,  but  their  loss  were  more  than  compensated  for  by  the  time  gained. 
Could  some  means  have  been  devised  for  cheaply  separating  the  split  from 
the  whole  peanut  the  work  would  have  been  quite  satisfactory."  2 

291.  Cultivation. — The  cultivation  of  peanuts  is  similar 
to  that  described  for  field  beans.     It  is  desirable  to  have  the 

1  Arkansas  Sta.  Bui.  No.  84   (1904),  p.   128. 

2  Arkansas  Sta.  Bui.  No.  84  (1904),  pp.  122,  123. 


LEGUMES   FOR   SEED  239 

land  free  from  weeds  and  friable  at  the  time  the  flower  stems 
strike  into  the  ground,  but  it  is  advisable  to  have  cultivation 
cease  before  this  occurs.  Covering  the  blossoms  with  soil  is 
injurious.  Experiments  have  shown  a  decrease  in  the  yield 
of  more  than  a  fourth,  compared  with  not  covering  the  vines. 

292.  Harvesting^  which  usually  occurs  in  September  and 
October,  should  be  done  before  frost,  since  both  the  vines  as 
fodder  and  the  kernels  are  injured  if  frosted.  The  crop  is  lifted 
by  a  special  plow  having  long  cutting  flanges  welded  to  the 
point  and  no  moldboard.  "The  plow  is  run  deep  enough  to 
sever  the  tap  root,  without  disturbing  the  pods.  The  vines  are 
then  lifted  from  the  ground  with  pitchforks,  arid  placed  in  rows; 
they  are  afterwards  stacked  around  short  poles.  Two  weeks 
later  the  pods  should  be  dry  enough  to  be  picked  off.  After 
picking  the  nuts  are  placed  in  bags,  holding  four  bushels,  and 
either  stored  away  in  dry,  well-ventilated  sheds,  or  at  once  sold 
to  the  'factories,'  where  they  are  cleaned,  sorted,  sacked,  and 
branded.    They  are  then  ready  for  the  trade."  ^ 

293.  Uses. — Peanuts  are  sorted  into  four  grades,  the  first 
three  grades  being  sold  to  venders  of  roasted  peanuts ;  while  the 
fourth  grade  is  sold  to  confectioners  to  be  used  in  peanut 
candy  and  for  similar  purposes.  The  kernel  is  recognized  to 
have  a  high  food  value  and  its  use  for  human  consumption  will 
doubtless  continue  to  increase.  Peanut  butter  is  a  paste  pre- 
pared from  the  seed  after  removing  the  shell  and  skin.  An  oil 
is  extracted  from  the  kernel  similar  in  character  and  use  to 
olive  and  cotton  seed  oil,  and  the  remaining  peanut  meal  is  one 
of  the  most  nutritious  and  highly  prized  concentrated  cattle 
foods.  All  classes  of  domestic  animals  are  fond  of  peanuts 
and  thrive  upon  them;  while  the  whole  plant  either  as  pasture 
or  hay  is  a  nutritious  forage  for  horses  and  cattle. 

lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  No.  25,  p.  23. 


240  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

Practicum 

294.  Field  Beans. — 1.  Seed  Study:  Make  drawings  showing  the  general 
shape,  hilum  =  point  of  attachment,  micropyle  =  point  at  the  free  end  of  the 
radicle  or  caulicle,  raphe  =:  ridge  from  opposite  end  of  the  hilum  to  end  of 
the  seed. 

Divide  the  bean  into  its  two  cotyledons  and  make  drawings  showing  the 
testa  =  seed  coat,  the  tegumen  =  body  of  cotyledons,  the  plantlet,  pointing 
out  the  radicle  =  free  and  pointed  end  of  the  plantlet,  node  =  point  of  at- 
tachment of  the  cotyledon,  first  pair  of  leaves,  internode. 

2.  Seedling:  Make  drawings  and  note  upon  them  if  there  are  any  roots, 
changes  in  the  plumule,  change  in  seed  coat,  consistency  of  tegumen,  length 
of    radicle. 

3.  Plant,  if  bush  bean:  runners  present,  absent;  growth  rank,  slight;  growth 
upright,  spreading;  many-stemmed,  few-stemmed;  short-stemmed,  long-stemmed; 
pods  on  runners,  pods  in  center  of  plant;  pods  few,  many. 

4.  Pods:  length in.;  average  number  of  beans ;  symmetri- 
cal, asymmetrical;  straight,  curved,  twisted;  depression  between  beans  slight, 
marked;  pods  well  filled,  not  well  filled;  beans  crowded,  not  crowded;  section 
large,  small;  flat,  oval;  back  creased,  not  creased;  surface  rough,  smooth; 
healthy,  diseased. 

5.  Seed    Inspection:    Count    100    beans    and    weigh    them.      Average    weight 

of  individual ;   average   length ;    average   width ; 

average    thickness ;     ratio    of    width    to    length ;     ratio    of 

length   to  thickness ;   ratio  of  width  to  thickness 

6.  Shape  of  bean:  kidney-shaped,  symmetrical;  cross-section  oval,  flat, 
round. 

7.  Color:  mottled,  splashed,  striped;  if  uniform,  white,  black,  brown,  red; 
eye  yellow,  black,  not  colored. 

295.  Collateral  Reading. — B.  W.  Jones:  The  Peanut  Plant.  New  York: 
Orange   Judd   Co.,    1902. 

W.  N.  Roper:  Peanut  and  its  Culture.  Petersburg,  Va.:  American  Nut 
Journal,   1905. 

H.  C.  Irish:  Garden  Beans  Cultivated  as  Esculents.  In  Missouri  Bot. 
Garden  Report    1901,  pp.  81-8. 

T.  E.  Browne:  Peanut  Culture.  In  The  Bulletin,  North  Carolina  Dept. 
Agr.   (October,   1906),  pp.  23-7 

R.  B.  Handy:  Peanuts:  Culture  and  Uses.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui. 
No.   25,    1895. 

Thomas  Shaw:  Canadian  Field  Peas.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  No. 
224,    1905. 

Mary  Hinman  Abel:  Beans,  Peas,  and  other  Legumes  as  Food.  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.,   Farmers'   Bui.   No.   121,    1900. 

C.  A.  Zavitz  and  Wm.  Lochhead:  Peas  and  the  Pea  Weevil.  Ontario  Agr. 
Col.   Bui.  No.   126,   1903. 

J.  M.  Van  Hook:  Blight  and  Mildew  of  the  Field  and  Garden  Peas.  Ohio 
Station   Bui.   No.   173,    1906. 


XIII 


LEGUMES   FOR  SEED 

COWPEAS 

296.  Relationships. — Cowpeas  (Vigna  sinensis  (L.)  Endl. ; 
Dolichos  sinensis  L. ;  Vigna  catjang  Wallp.),  or,  as  more  ap- 
propriately called  in  Europe,  China  beans  are  not  properly 
speaking  a  pea,  although  they  resemble  the  pea  in  form  of 
blossom  and  fruit.  In  general  appearance,  in  its  habit  of 
growth,  and  in  the  character  and  composition  of  its  seeds,  it 
much  more  resembles  the  common  field  and  garden  beans 
(Phaseolus)  than  do  soy  beans. 

297.  Roots. — The  well  developed  tap  root  bears  from  its 
upper  part  large  branches  which  spread  out  almost  horizon- 
tally from  one  to  two  feet  when  they  turn  downward,  some 
reaching  a  considerable  depth.  Roots  42  inches  have  been 
noted,  but  the  bulk  of  the  roots  is  within  15  inches  of  the 
surface.  Rootlets  and  root  hairs  are  numerous.  Cowpea  roots 
are  nearly  white,  and  the  abundant  root-tubercles  ha^e  a  ten- 
dency to  follow  along  certain  roots  in  disconnected  chains.  The 
Kansas  Station  believes  that  on  account  of  its  much  stronger 
and  more  extensive  root  system  it  will  not  bear  as  close  planting 
as  soy  bean.  For  this  reason,  also,  and  because  of  the  readiness 
and  universality  with  which  root-tubercles  are  formed,  it  is 
better  adapted  to  improving  the  soil.^ 

298.  Common  Characters.— The  stems  are  striped  with  longi- 
tudinal grooves  and  bear  three  large  leaflets,  two  to  six  inches 
long  and  wide,  the  terminal  one  long-stalked  and  symmetrical, 

1  Kansas  Sta.  Bui.  No.  127   (1905),  p.  223. 

241 


242 


THE   FORAGE   AND    FIBER   CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


the  lateral  ones  short-stalked  and  oblique.  The  yellowish  flowers 
are  few  on  long  stalks.  The  pods  are  cylindrical,  fleshy,  nearly 
straight,  and  many-seeded. 

299.    Variable  Characters.— This  plant  is  noteworthy  on  ac- 
count of  its  variable  habit  of  growth  under  different  conditions 

of  climate,  soil,  and  cul- 
ture. There  are  in  this 
country  about  70  named 
varieties,  some  of  which 
are  probably  synonyms. 
The  cowpea  has  natural- 
ly, perhaps,  a  trailing 
habit,  but  varies  from  a 
bush  with  an  erect  single 
stem  one  foot  high  and 
short  lateral  branches  to 
a  vine  with  prostrate 
stems  and  trailing 
branches  15  to  20  feet  in 
length.  The  cowpea  does 
not  twine  as  in  the  case 
of  pole  field  beans,  nor 
does  it  have  tendrils  as 
in  the  case  of  field  and 
garden  beans. 
The  seed  may  be  smooth  or  wrinkled,  though  the  former  type 
is  much  the  more  common.  The  seeds  vary  from  about  75,000 
to  about  270,000  per  bushel.  With  Clay,  Whippoorwill,  and 
Wonderful  (Unknown)  varieties,  there  are  about  150,000  seeds 
per  bushel.  The  amount  commonly  sold  for  a  bushel  is  60 
pounds;  the  actual  weight  per  measured  bushel  may  vary  from 
51  to  61  pounds.  The  Arkansas  Station  obtained  with  Warren's 
Extra  Early  44  per  cent,  of  shelled  peas  from  the  cured  plant, 
while  with  Red  Ripper  17  per  cent,  was  obtained.^    In  the  case 

1  Arkansas  Sta.  Bui.  No.   70   (1901),  p.  95. 


Leaf  and  pods  of  the  cowpea 
(After  Smith) 


LEGUMES    FOR    SEED  243 

of  late  maturing  varieties,  no  pods  may  be  formed.  The  per  cent, 
of  shelled  peas  to  pods  or  unshelled  peas  may  vary  from  about 
50  to  85.  The  pods  may  be  brown,  purple  or  blackish,  though 
light  yellow  is  the  prevailing  color.  They  vary  somewhat  in 
diameter,  and  in  length  from  5  to  10  or  more  inches.  The  shape 
of  pods  and  shape  of  seeds  are  to  some  extent  related,  and  give 
rise  to  two  types  with  many  gradations  between : 

(1)  A  rounded  form  so  closely  packed  in  the  pod  that  the  sides  of  the 
pea  are  flattened  or  indented,  giving  the  pod  a  tightly  stuflfed,  corrugated, 
plethoric  appearance.     This  class  of  pea  is  known  as  Crowder. 

(2)  A  flattened  form,  kidney-shaped,  and  placed  farther  apart  in  the  pod, 
which  is  smoother  and  leaner  in  appearance.  The  pods  of  Crozvders  are  gen- 
erally quite   stubby  and  short;   those  of  the  Kidney   type  are   long.^ 

The  color  of  the  seed  is  extremely  variable,  consisting  of 
solid  or  mottled  shades  of  white,  yellow,  green,  pink,  purple, 
red,  brown,  and  black.  A  ring  around  the  scar  is  common,  giv- 
ing rise  to  names  of  varieties,  such  as  "black-eyed"  or  "purple- 
eyed."  There  is  also  a  great  variation  in  the  time  required  to 
ripen  seed,  which  may  vary  from  two  to  seven  months.  Early 
planting,  excess  of  moisture  and  of  nitrogen  will  prolong  the 
period  of  growth  in  the  same  variety.  There  is  a  somewhat 
constant  relation  between  the  period  of  growth  and  the  habit 
of  growth.  Early  maturing  varieties  are  dwarf  or  bushy  and 
usually  produce  seed,  while  those  with  trailing  habit  are  later  in 
maturing  and  produce  greater  abundance  of  vines,  but  usually 
produce  no  mature  seed  north  of  the  South  Central  states. 

300.  Variations  Due  to  Environment. — It  is  commonly  held 
that  the  habit  of  growth  of  different  varieties  of  cowpea  varies 
greatly  with  the  climatic  conditions.  It  is  said  that  erect  bush 
varieties  become  trailers  when  taken  southward,  when  sown 
unusually  early  or  upon  very  wet  soil ;  while  trailers  assume  the 
bush  habit  when  taken  northward  or  planted  quite  thickly. 

1  Georgia   Sta.  Bui.  No.  26   (1894),  p.   171. 


244  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

The  Delaware  Station^  obtained  seed  from  several  sources 
ranging  in  latitude  from  Texas  to  Virginia,  and  compared  the 
growth  with  plants  from  seed  grown  at  their  own  station  for 
several  years.  They  found  no  evidence,  where  the  identity  of  a 
variety  was  beyond  question,  as  the  Whippoorwill,  that  seed 
grown  in  the  far  south  required  any  longer  season  for  maturing 
a  crop  than  that  grown  some  hundreds  of  miles  farther  north. 
They  note,  hoWever,  that  there  is  some  evidence  that  seed  of 
any  variety  grown  in  their  own  state  will  produce  better  yields 
than  that  grown  farther  south.  The  Cornell  Station  ^  grew  seed 
obtained  from  North  Carolina,  Arkansas,  and  Louisiana.  The 
black  and  clay  varieties  from  North  Carolina  matured  seed  well, 
but  plants  of  the  same  varieties  from  Louisiana  stock  were  too 
late.  While  the  Michigan  Station  ^  matured  Whippoorwill  seed, 
and  while  certain  varieties  fruited  at  the  Wisconsin  Station,* 
the  latter  station,  after  experimenting  four  years  with  this 
crop,  reports  that  the  cowpeas  ripen  so  unevenly,  and  the  plants 
are  of  such  a  spreading  character  that  their  culture  cannot  be 
found  profitable  except,  possibly,  for  soil  renovation  by  plowing 
them  under  in  the  fall. 

301.  Classification. — The  Louisiana  Station  °  concludes  from 
a  thorough  study  of  63  varieties  that  there  is  but  one  species  of 
all  of  the  varieties  of  the  true  "cowpea,"  and  that  the  number  of 
varieties  can  be  greatly  reduced,  probably  to  five,  possibly  to 
three.  The  solid  colors,  black,  white,  and  red,  are  regarded  as 
pure  varieties  and  the  others  as  fluctuating  hybrids  of  these 
three.  As  in  kidney  beans,  the  characters  of  the  seeds  form 
the  best  basis  of  classification,  although  the  character  of  the 
pods,  the  habit  of  growth  and  time  of  maturity  may  enter  into 

1  Delaware  Sta.  Bui.  No.  46  (1900),  pp.  21-3. 

2  New  York  Cornell  Sta.  Bui.  No.  61    (1893),  p.   335. 

3  See  New  York  Cornell  Sta.  Bui.  No.  61    (1893),  p.  335. 
*  Wisconsin  Sta.  Rpt.   (1903),  p.  276. 

^  Louisiana  Sta.  Bui.,  2d  ser.  No.  40   (1896),  pp.   1441-2. 


LEGUMES    FOR    SEED  245 

such  classification.     The  Georgia  Station  has  proposed  the  fol- 
lowing as  a  basis  for  a  systematic  and  uniform  nomenclature: 

1.  Form  of  pea,   main   divisions:    (a)    Crowders,    (b)    Kidneys. 

2.  Habit  of  growth,  divisions:  (a)  trailing,  (b)  recumbent,  (c)  semi-re- 
cumbent,   (d)   erect. 

3.  Time    of    maturity,    divisions:     (a)    very    early,    (b)    early,    (c)    medium, 

(d)  late,   (e)  very  late. 

4.  Color  of  pod,  divisions:    (a)   dark,    (b)   light. 

5.  Color  of  peas:  divisions  too  numerous  to  specify. 

6.  Size  of  pods,  divisions:  (a)  very  large,   (b)  large,  (c)   medium,   (d)  small, 

(e)  very  small. 

7.  Size  of  peas,  divisions:  (a)  very  large,  (b)  large,  (c)  medium,  (d) 
small,    (e)    very   small.i 

302,  Varieties. — The  Georgia  Station  recommends  varieties  as  follows: 
for  hay,  since  they  are  erect.  Unknown,  Clay,  Whippoorwill;  for  grazing, 
since  they  will  remain  on  the  ground  all  winter.  Black,  Everlasting,  Red,  and 
Red  Ripper;  as  the  heaviest  producer  of  peas.  Unknown,  Calico,  Clay,  and- 
White-Brown  hull;  as  best  table  peas,  Sugar  Crowder,  White  Crowder,  Mush, 
Large  Lady,  Small  Lady,  Rice;  as  the  best  all-purpose  pea.  Unknown  (Won- 
derful) and  Qay.2  The  Alabama  Station  reports  the  largest  production  of 
seed  from  New  Era,  Black,  and  Red  Ripper;  of  hay,  from  Wonderful  and 
Clay.*  The  Arkansas  Station  grew  123  samples  embracing  about  thirty  varieties 
under  forty-five  names.  The  heaviest  yield  of  hay  was  obtained  from  Clay 
and  the  lightest  from  New  Era  and  Black  Eye.  Wonderful  (Unknown),  Red 
Ripper  and  Clay  grew  very  few  peas.  The  varieties  giving  the  highest  yield 
of  peas  were  Calico,  Coffee,  Extra  Early  Black  Eye,  Iron,  New  Era,  Red 
Yellow  Hull,  Speckled  Java,  Warren's  Extra  Early,  Warren's  New  Hybrid, 
Whippoorwill  and  White  Brown  Eye.  New  Era,  Old  Man's,  Warren's  Extra 
Early,  Extra  Early  Black  Eye,  and  Warren's  New  Hybrid  yielded  a  greater 
proportion  of  peas  to  vines  than  other  varieties  tested,  and  are  recommended 
for  early  planting,* 

At  the  Illinois  Station  the  best  yield  of  seed  was  obtained  with  Warren's 
Extra  Early,  Warren's  New  Hybrid,  Old  Man's  and  New  Era.  Whippoorwill 
produced  less  than  one-half  as  much  seed  as  the  varieties  named,  while  Red 
Ripper,  Wonderful,  Lady,  Clay,  and  Taylor  either  produced  but  few  pods  or 
failed  to  mature.^  At  the  Tennessee  Station  the  best  yield  of  pea  vine  hay 
was  with  Taylor  and  Wonderful,  while  Clay,  Black  Eye  and  Whippoorwill 
each  yielded  above  two  tons  per  acre.* 

1  Georgia   Sta.  BuL  No.  26   (1894),  p.   171. 

2  Georgia  Sta.  Bui.  No.  26   (1894),  p.  185. 

3  Alabama  Sta.  BuL  No.  118   (1902),  p.  3. 
*  Arkansas  Sta.  BuL  No.  11  (1903),  p.  32. 
Illinois  Sta.  Circ.  No.  69   (1903),  p.  5. 
"Tennessee  Sta.  BuL  14  (1901),  No.  1,  p.  15. 


246  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

The  Delaware  Station  1  recommends  New  Era  and  Whippoorwill  as  the 
best  varieties  for  that  state,  while  next  in  favor  are  Black,  Clay,  Unknown 
(Wonderful)  and  Black  Eye.  Among  34  varieties  the  Kansas  Station,^  con- 
sidering the  quality  of  fodder  with  yield  of  fodder  and  of  peas,  found  the 
following  to  be  the  more  promising:  New  Era,  Black  Eye,  Black,  Warren's 
Extra  Early,  Old  Man's,  Whippoorwill,  and  Lady.  The  Kentucky  Station ' 
recommends  Whippoorwill  and  Black  Eye  for  forage,  and  Extra  Early  Black 
Eye  and  Large  Black  Eye  for  table  use.  With  28  varieties  the  Texas  Station  * 
secured  an  average  yield  of  15  bushels  per  acre,  with  Pearson  Beau  (35), 
Black  (20),  Mush,  or  Rice  and  Coffee  (19)  leading  in  yield  of  peas.  Pearson 
Beau  was  one  of  the  latest  to  mature  (September  20),  while  Mush  or  Rice 
was  the  second  to  mature   (July  25). 

The  Virginia  Station^  found  the  Southern,  Wonderful,  Iron,  and  Clay  to 
be  the  most  productive  varieties  for  forage.  The  Louisiana  Station  recom- 
mends the  Conch  variety  for  forage.  The  Whippoorwill  variety  gave  the 
largest  yield  of  seed  at  the  Mississippi  Station,^  The  New  Jersey  Station  ^ 
found  Red  Ripper  the  best  variety,  while  Southdown,  Small  Black  and  Taylor 
were  good.  At  the  North  Carolina  Station  the  highest  yields  of  peas  among 
six  varieties  were  obtained  in  the  following  order:  Unknown,  Red  Ripper, 
and  Clay.  Oklahoma  Station  recommends  Whippoorwill  for  general  use. 
Rhode  Island  Station  found  Black,  Blue,  and  Unknown  to  produce  the  heaviest 
yields   of   dry   matter,    each   yielding  above   two   tons   per   acre. 

303.  Cross-fertilization. — From  24  varieties  the  Louisiana 
Station  *  selected  78  growing  plants.  Each  plant  was  surrounded 
with  a  wooden  frame.  Upon  one-half  of  the  frames  mosquito 
netting  was  stretched,  upon  the  other  half  thin  muslin.  When 
the  pods  had  become  three  or  more  inches  long  no  difference 
was  noted  in  the  covered  plants.  Matured  seed  was  found  in 
over  95  per  cent.,  indicating  that  each  flower  is  capable  of  self- 
fertilization.  Neither  honey  nor  bumble  bees  were  observed  to 
visit  exposed  plants.  Attempted  artificial  fertilization  gave  nega- 
tive results.     While  the  structure  of  the  cowpea  flower  is,  like 

1  Delaware  Sta.  Bui.  No.  46   (1900),  p.   16. 

2  Kansas  Sta.  Bui.  No.  123    (1904),  p.  199. 

3  Kentucky  Sta.  Bui.  No.  98   (1902). 

4  Texas  Sta.   Bui.   No.  34    (1895). 

5  Virginia  Sta.  Bui.  No.  149   (1903). 

« Mississippi   Sta.   Bui.   No.  84    (1904),  p.   12. 

'New  Jersey  Sta.   Rpt.   1903,  pp.  350-362. 

8  Louisiana  Sta.  Bui.,  2d  sen  No.  40   (1896),  pp.  1447,  1448. 


LEGUMES    FOR    SEE.D 


247 


Other  legumes,  such  as  to  make  cross-fertilization  possible,  it 
is  probable  that  self-fertilization  most  commonly  occurs. 

304.  Composition. — The  following  table  compiled  from  differ- 
ent sources  gives  the  water-free  composition  of  different  parts 
of  the  cowpeas  as  ordinarily  used: 

Table  Showing  Composition  of  Cowpeas 


Analysis 

Dry- 
shelled 
peas  ^ 

Vines 
with 
pods  2 

Vines 
with- 
out 
pods  1 

Stems  1 

Leaves  ^ 

Silage 
(Vines 

and 
pods)  3 

Ash           ... 

3.4 

9.9 

6.9 

6.4 

11.6 

10.0 

Protein     (N  x  6.25) 

26.3 

18.4 

10.4 

6.9 

18.4 

14.3 

Crude   fiber     . 

5.4 

22.8 

34.5 

43.1 

16.0 

27.0 

Nitrogen-free    extract 

63.4 

42.8 

46.1 

42.6 

46.1 

45.8 

Fat           ... 

1.5 

6.1 

2.5 

1.0 

7.9 

2.9 

Phosphoric   acid 

0.9 

0  3 

0.2 

0.4 

Potash      . 

1.5 

1.9 

1   8 

1.2 

305.  Digestibility. — With  cattle,  cowpea  silage  is  slightly  less 
digestible  than  maize  silage,  contains  about  one-third  less 
digestible  fat  and  over  twice  as  much  digestible  protein.  Com- 
pared with  the  digestibility  of  clover  when  fed  to  sheep,  it  is 
somewhat  more  digestible  with  about  the  same  relative  propor- 
tion of  digestible  constituents.  When  fed  to  cattle,  cowpea 
silage  is  nearly  as  digestible  as  when  bran  is  fed  to  sheep,  but 
in  each  one  hundred  pounds  of  dry  matter  eaten  cowpea  silage 
contains  less  than  two-thirds  as  much  digestible  protein.*  The 
Delaware  Station  reports  an  experiment,  which  showed  that 
with  milch  cows,  when  cowpea  vine  silage  was  displaced  by 
its  chemical  equivalent  in  the  form  of  bran,  the  yield  of  milk 

1  Arkansas  Sta.  Bui.  No.  24   (1893),  p.  126. 

2  Oklahoma  Sta.  BuL  No.  6   (1893),  p.  36. 

3  Illinois  Sta.  Bui.  No.  43   (1896),  p.  204. 
♦Illinois  Sta.  Bui.  No.  43   (1896),  p.  205. 


24^  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

and  of  butter   fat  was  reduced,  while  no  loss  occurred  when 
cowpea  vine  silage  replaced  its  chemical  equivalent  in  bran/ 

306.  Distribution. — While  native  of  southern  Asia  and  central 
Africa,  cowpeas  have  come  to  be  cultivated  in  nearly  all  the 
warmer  regions.  The  United  States  may  be  divided  in  a  very 
general  way  into  three  more  or  less  overlapping  regions  with 
regard  to  the  cultivation  of  legumes.  In  the  North  Atlantic 
and  the  North  Central  states,  the  clovers,  red,  mammoth,  and 
alsike,  constitute  the  principal  forage  crops  with  the  kidney 
beans  and  the  common  field  and  garden  peas  the  principal 
legumes  for  seed.  In  the  states  west  of  the  Missouri  River, 
alfalfa  is  the  almost  universal  legume  for  forage,  while  the 
lima  beans  are  grown  somewhat  on  the  Pacific  coast  for  their 
seed.  In  the  South  Atlantic  and  the  South  Central  states,  the 
cowpea  is  as  a  forage  crop  what  red  clover  and  alfalfa  are 
in  the  other  sections;  while  its  seeds  largely  take  the  place 
of  the  field  and  garden  peas,  the  kidney  and  lima  beans 
grown  elsewhere. 

In  some  sections,  especially  in  the  South  Atlantic  states, 
crimson  clover  becomes  an  economic  factor,  while  the  peanut 
occupies  an  important  and  increasing  place  in  the  Southern 
states  north  of  the  cotton  belt.  Economy  of  production  has  in 
some  cases  given  crimson  clover  preference  to  cowpeas.  It 
is  estimated  that  in  the  cotton  belt  the  acreage  of  cowpeas  is 
greater  than  all  other  legumes  combined. 

307.  Adaptation. — One  reason,  apparently,  for  the  place 
which  cowpeas  are  coming  to  occupy  throughout  the  southern 
states  is  their  ability  to  grow  reasonably  well  upon  a  great 
variety  of  soils,  assuming  a  sufllicient  degree  of  temperature 
and  not  too  great  moisture.  They  require  a  warm,  fairly  dry 
soil.  Experience  has  shown  that  they  may  be  grown  success- 
fully on  land  too  poor  for  successful  crops  of  cotton  or  maize, 

1  Delaware  Sta.  Bui,  No.  46  (190.-?),  p.  4. 


".  K.  WINTERHALTKT? 

LEGUMES    FOR    SEED  249 

the   failure  of  ihe  soil  to  produce   the  latter  crop  being  due, 
doubtless,  to  a  lack  of  available  nitrogen. 

The  Arkansas  Station  found  as  the  result  of  five  years*  trial 
with  ten  varieties  that  the  best  results  were  obtained  in  seasons 
of  least  rainfall,  as  follows: 

Influence   of  Rainfall   on  Yield   of   Cowpeas 


Year 

Rainfall 

Hay  per 

Peas  per 

inches 

acre,  lb. 

acre,  bu, 

1898 

62.2 

3,268 

12.3 

1899 

36.3 

3,054 

13.7 

1900 

32.7 

2,781 

21.3 

1901 

22.2 

3,873 

28.4 

1902 

37.2 

3,042 

13.4 

In  rainy  seasons  the  plant  suffered  from  mildew,  which  de- 
creased the  yield  of  peas,  and  to  a  less  extent  the  yield  of  hay.^ 
While  cowpeas  may  be  grown  in  Canada,  their  climatic  adap- 
tation is  south  of  the  latitude  of  St.  Louis.  They  appear  to  re- 
quire warmer  soil  and  atmospheric  conditions  for  successful  ger- 
mination and  early  growth,  but  will  withstand  fall  frosts  better 
than  field  beans.  Some  varieties  will  remain  green  all  winter 
in  portions  of  the  Gulf  states,  and  thus  furnish  winter  pasture. 

308.  Inoculation. — Cowpea  roots  almost  universally  bear  root- 
tubercles  without  artificial  inoculation.  Under  field  conditions, 
the  Alabama  Station  found  no  increase  from  inoculation,  since 
the  roots  developed  an  abundance  of  root-tubercles  without 
inoculation.^  The  New  Jersey  Station,  however,  found  that 
the  first  season  there  were  few  root-tubercles,  but  that  they 
increased  each  season  for  three  years  when  they  were  abundant. 
The  growth  of  forage  increased  with  the  increase  in  the  abun- 
dance of  root-tubercles." 

1  Arkansas  Sta.  Bui.  No.  11  (1902),  p.  32. 

2  Alabama  Sta  Bui.  No.  87   (1897),  p.  480. 

3  New  Jersey  Sta.  Rpt.  (1899),  p.  200, 


2SO  THE   FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

A  low  and  irregular  yield  of  cowpeas  in  1899  was  attributed 
by  the  Arkansas  Station  partly  to  the  unimproved  condition  of 
the  soil,  and  partly  to  the  absence  or  limited  number  of  tubercle- 
producing  organisms  in  the  soil.^  At  the  Delaware  Station 
plants  grown  in  sterilized  soil  produced  no  tubercles,  and  made 
a  weak  growth.^  Under  favorable  conditions,  tubercles  develop 
when  plants  are  only  a  few  inches  high. 

309.  Rotations. — On  account  of  the  ease  and  variety  of  con- 
ditions under  which  different  varieties  will  grow,  and  the 
rapidity  with  which  they  will  develop,  cowpeas  are  admirably 
adapted  to  simple  or  elaborate  rotations.  (C.  A.  396)  They 
are  usually  planted  in  the  southern  states  between  the  maize 
rows  at  the  last  or  next  to  the  last  cultivation,  or  follow  oats, 
wheat,  or  rye  as  a  second  crop,  thus  adding  to  the  number  of 
crops  which  may  be  taken  from  the  land  during  a  rotation. 
A  desirable  rotation  for  the  cotton  states  is:  maize  and  cow- 
peas, one  year;  oats  followed  by  cowpeas  harvested  for  hay, 
one  year;  cotton  one  or  two  years.  In  the  more  closely  and 
thickly  planted  maize  fields  of  the  North  Atlantic  and  the  North 
Central  states  cowpeas  do  not  develop  sufficiently  to  be  of  value 
either  for  forage  or  for  fertilizers. 

310.  Fertilizers. — In  general,  nitrogen  has  not  been  found  a  profitable 
constituent  of  fertilizers  for  cowpeas.  The  Alabama  Station,  however,  found 
on  a  soil  previously  liberally  fertilized  with  phosphates  and  potash  an  increase 
of  about  four  bushels  of  seed  or  about  27  per  cent,  from  the  use  of  complete 
commercial  fertilizer,  with  practically  no  increase  from  mineral  fertilizers. 
In  another  experiment  there  was  an  increase  of  4.5  bushels  or  48  per  cent, 
from  the  use  of  240  pounds  of  Florida  soft  (rock)  phosphate  per  acre,  and 
an  increase  of  5.8  bushels  or  60  per  cent,  from  the  same  quantity  of  acid 
phosphate.^  The  Tennessee  Station  found  that  nitrate  of  soda  had  apparently 
no  effect  on  the  growth  and  yield  of  the  crop,  while  muriate  of  potash  and 
lime  used  singly  increased  the  green  yield  about  one  ton  per  acre.  The 
experience   of  this  station  has  been   that  acid   phosphate   used  alone  has  given 

1  Arkansas  Sta.  Bui.  No.  70  (1901),  p.  93. 
a  Delaware  Sta.  Rpt.   (1896),  p.   108. 
•Alabama  Sta.  Bui.  No.  118  (1902),  p.  21. 


LEGUMES   FOR   SEED  25 1 

the  most  profitable  returns.^  Connecticut  Storrs  Station  2  also  found  after 
twelve  years*  experience  only  mineral  fertilizers  could  be  profitably  used  in 
growing  the  crop  for   forage  or   for  green  manure. 

The  Alabama  Station  ^  conducted  two  experiments  on  the  effect  of  lime  on 
cowpeas,  using  the  variety  Wonderful.  The  cowpeas  were  seeded  with  a  drill, 
fertilized  with  acid  phosphate,  and  cultivated  several  times.  In  one  test,  on 
reddish  loam  soil,  the  yield  was  5.6  bushels  of  peas  without  lime,  and  5.2 
bushels  where  slaked  lime  at  the  rate  of  640  pounds  per  acre  had  been  ap- 
plied broadcast  in  February  of  the  preceding  year.  In  the  other  test,  on 
gray  sandy  soil,  water  slaked  lime  at  the  rate  of  1,000  pounds  per  acre  of 
unslaked  lime  was  used  as  a  top  dressing  on  oats.  The  oat  stubble  was 
plowed  and  seeded  with  a  drill  to  cowpeas.  On  the  plot  not  limed  the  yield 
was  13  bushels  of  cowpeas  per  acre,  while  the  limed  plot  yielded  10.2  bushels 
per  acre.     There  was  no  notable  difference  in  the  appearance  of  the  vines. 

311.  Time  of  Seeding. — The  time  of  seeding  will  vary  with 
the  latitude,  the  variety,  and  the  purpose  for  which  the  crop  is 
to  be  used.  Where  grown  for  seed,  seeding  should  occur  later 
than  for  hay,  since  late  planting  tends  to  produce  a  more  erect 
habit  and  hence  greater  seed  production.  Early  planting  pro- 
motes a  luxuriant  growth  of  vines.  In  the  regions  north  of 
the  cotton  belt,  planting  may  occur  after  maize  has  been  planted 
or  about  the  time  of  common  field  beans.  In  the  cotton  states, 
planting  may  occur  between  April  i  and  August  15,  but  May, 
June,  and  the  first  half  of  July  are  the  best  months.  For  seed 
production,  June  is  the  best  month. 

The  Delaware  Station  *  planted  cowpeas  at  intervals  from  May  18  to  July  25. 
The  seedings  of  the  latter  part  of  June  and  of  early  July  were  the  most 
profitable.  The  Alabama  Station  planted  New  Era  cowpeas  (an  early  maturing 
variety)  on  April  26,  picked  seeds  July  22,  planted  these  seeds  July  26,  which 
produced  a  crop  of  seeds  before  frost,  90  per  cent,  of  the  pods  being  ripe 
on  November  1.^  Cowpeas  sown  in  Arkansas  in  May,  June,  and  July  produced 
twice  a*  much  hay  and  three  times  the  quantity  of  peas  as  when  sown  in 
August.  The  Arkansas  Station,  however,  believes  it  usually  profitable  in  that 
latitude  to  sow  as  late  as  August  15.^ 

1  Tennessee  Sta.  Bui.  Vol.  XIV.   (1902),  No.  1,  p.  16. 

2  Connecticut    Storrs   Sta.    Rpt.    (1901),    p.    138. 
8  Alabama  Sta.  Bui.  No.  118   (1902),  p.  20. 

*  Delaware  Sta.  Rpt.   (1895),  pp.  232-6. 
5  Alabama  Sta.  Bui.  No.  118   (1902),  p.  6. 
"Arkansas  Sta.  Bui.  No.  70  (1901),  p.  123. 


252  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

312.  Quantity  of  Seed. — The  amount  of  seed  used  in  ordinary 
practise  varies  from  less  than  one  peck  to  three  or  more  bushels 
per  acre.  A  greater  quantity  is  used  for  hay  than  for  seed, 
and  for  late  than  for  early  planting.  The  size  which  the  plant 
attains,*  the  size  and  germinating  ability  of  the  seed,  the  fertility 
of  the  soil,  and  the  manner  of  seeding  enter  into  the  problem. 
It  is  a  practise  with  some,  where  the  germination  is  as  low  as 
50  per  cent.,  to  double  the  quantity  of  seed.  Since  germination 
is  affected  largely  by  stage  of  maturity,  weather,  and  method 
of  handling,  it  is  usually  good  economy  to  grow  one's  own  seed. 
In  heavy  soils,  poor  stands  are  not  infrequently  due  to  a  crusting 
of  the  surface  that  prevents  the  plants  from  coming  up.  Other 
things  equal,  the  richer  the  soil  and  the  better  the  seed-bed, 
the  less  the  seed  required. 

The  Arkansas  Station  in  one  trial  with  Whippoorwill  sown  May  4  at  one, 
two,  three,  four,  six,  and  eight  pecks,  obtained  a  yield  of  3,314  pounds  of 
hay  and  31.4  bushels  of  peas  when  one  peck  of  seed  was  used,  the  yield  of 
both  hay  and  peas  decreasing  with  each  addition  of  seed,  eight  pecks  of  seed 
producing'  1,749  pounds  of  hay  and  16.4  bushels  of  peas.  On  May  20  a  series 
of  plats  was  sown  with  quantities  of  seed  varying  from  12.5  to  100  pounds 
per  acre.  The  largest  yield  of  hay,  2,675  pounds,  and  the  largest  yield  of 
peas,  36  bushels,  were  obtained  from  the  smallest  seeding,  but  the  decrease 
in  yield  from  the  thicker  seeding  was  not  uniform.  The  largest  seeding 
produced  2,275  pounds  of  hay  and  20  bushels  of  seed  per  acre.^  The  Illinois 
Station  reports  that  the  New  Era  cowpea  was  planted  in  rows  three  feet 
apart  with  the  following  yield  of  peas:  3  inches  apart  in  the  row,  27.5  bushels; 
6  inches  apart,  32.5  bushels;  9  inches  apart,  42.5  bushels  per  acre. 

In  a  favorable  season  the  Delaware  Station  ^  planted  on  June  7  Whippoor- 
will seed  at  the  rates  of  one,  two,  three,  four,  and  five  pecks  per  acre.  The 
yields  on  all  plats  were  practically  the  same  for  both  vines  and  peas,  except 
where  one  peck  was  sown,  in  which  case  the  yield  of  vines  was  considerably 
below  the  average.  The  Mississippi  Station  ^  secured  from  60  pounds  of  seed 
per  acre  2,520  pounds  of  hay  per  acre,  and  from  30  pounds  of  seed  2,440 
pounds  of  hay  per  acre. 

313.  Mixtures. — The  need  of  some  grass  to  grow  with  cow- 
peas  for  hay  in  order  to  assist  in  handling  and  curing  peas  has 

1  Arkansas  Sta.  Bui.  No.  70    (1901),  p.  99. 

8  Delaware  Sta.  Bui.  No.  46   (1900),  pp.  23,   24. 

'Mississippi  Sta.  Bui.  No.  83    (1904). 


LEGUMES   FOR   SEED  253 

been  suggested.  Volunteer  crab  grass  (Pamctim  sanguinale  h.) 
often  serves  a  useful  purpose,  but  the  irregularity  of  the  stand 
and  the  size  of  plants  are  an  objection.  Millet  can  be  sown 
with  early  maturing  varieties,  using  one  peck  of  millet  seed 
to  one  bushel  or  less  of  cowpeas.  At  the  Alabama  Station 
drilling  Amber  sorghum  and  Wonderful  peas  together,  on  May 
14  increased  the  yield  of  hay  materially,  but  did  not  decrease 
the  difficulty  of  curing.^ 

314.  Methods  of  Seeding. — There  are  many  methods  of 
sowing  cowpeas.  When  grown  in  maize,  the  seed  may  be  sown 
broadcast  just  before  the  last  cultivation,  which  operation  covers 
it;  or  immediately  after  the  last  or  next  to  the  last  cultivation, 
a  single  row  of  cowpeas  may  be  drilled  with  the  one-horse  cot- 
ton or  maize  drill.  Sometimes  a  furrow  is  opened  with  a  shovel 
plow,  the  seed  sown  by  hand,  and  then  covered  by  cultivating 
each  side  and  throwing  the  earth  over  the  seed. 

The  Arkansas  Station  compared  drilling  with  planter  with 
broadcasting,  using  30  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  in  each  case, 
and  obtained  11.4  bushels  of  peas  and  1,498  pounds  of  hay  by 
drilling,  and  6.1  bushels  of  peas,  and  1,264  pounds  of  hay  by 
broadcasting.^  When  sown  alone,  for  example  after  a  crop  of 
oats,  the  seed  is  sometimes  sown  broadcast  before  plowing, 
using  60  to  90  pounds  of  seed  per  acre.  A  better  method  is 
to  plow  first,  and,  if  sown  broadcast,  to  cover  with  the  disk 
harrow,  since  moderately  deep  covering  is  desirable.  If  for 
hay,  and  if  a  grain  drill  is  available,  close  every  other  outlet 
so  that  the  rows  will  be  14  or  16  inches  apart,  using  20  to  40 
pounds  of  seed  per  acre;  if  for  seed,  close  enough  outlets  to 
make  the  rows  32  to  40  inches  apart,  using  10  to  20  pounds  of 
seed  per  acre.  The  one-horse  maize  planter  is  also  widely  used, 
making  rows  preferably  36  inches  apart.     (C.  A.  305) 

315.  Cultivation. — In  practise  cowpeas  get  very  little  cultiva- 

^  Alabama   Sta.   Bui.   No.   118    (1902),   p.   29. 
-Arkansas  Sta.  Bui.  No.  70  (1901),  p.  104. 


254  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

tion.  By  cultivation,  however,  the  Arkansas  Station  has  ob- 
tained increased  yields  of  peas,  ranging  from  50  to  100  per  cent. 
If  sown  between  maize  rows,  they  and  the  maize  may  and  may 
not  get  a  cultivation  after  cowpeas  are  planted.  When  sown 
alone  for  hay,  pasture  or  fertilizers,  no  cultivation  is  ordinarily 
received  or  required.  When  planted  for  seed,  they  may  be 
cultivated  as  for  field  beans  or  maize,  about  two  cultivations 
being  generally  sufficient.  For  clean  culture,  one  hoeing  is 
generally  necessary,  although  this  operation  is  usually  looked 
upon  as  unprofitable.  Attempts  are  made  to  avoid  this  by  using 
the  weeder  after  the  plants  have  developed  several  leaves  and 
the  stems  have  become  toughened. 

In  view  of  the  danger  of  fungous  diseases,  this  practise  is 
questionable,  even  where  the  soil  is  such  as  to  make  the  weeder 
otherwise  practicable.  The  young  plants  are,  like  all  beans, 
tender  and  easily  broken,  requiring  careful  cultivation.  Culti- 
ation  should  not  occur  when  plants  are  wet,  for  reasons  given 
under  field  beans.  (268)  Cultivation  should  cease  with  the 
first  appearance  of  pods,  when  the  crop  is  intended  for  hay,  since 
cultivation  tends  to  prolong  the  period  of  growth,  and  hence 
to  make  curing  more  difficult. 

316.  Insect  Enemies. — The  cowpea  is  subject  to  the  attack  of  the  common 
bean  weevil  (271),  but  is  more  frequently  attacked  by  the  Chinese  cowpea  weevil 
{Brtichus  chinensis  L.)  and  the  four-spotted  bean  weevil  (J3.  quadrimaculatus 
Boh.),  both  of  which  appear  to  be  specific  enemies  of  the  cowpea.  They  are 
generally  distributed  in  the  South,  and  are  increasingly  injurious  with  the 
increased  area  devoted  to  cowpeas.  The  size  and  life  history  of  both  species 
are  similar  to  that  of  the  bean  weevil;  hence  tlieir  injury  and  the  remedies 
therefor  are  similar.  The  firefly  (Lampyridae)  was  observed  by  the  Louisiana 
Station  ^  to  visit  frequently  cowpea  flowers,  which  subsequently  failed  to 
produce  fruit.  Since  the  percentage  of  fructification  was  higher  in  plants 
which  had  been  covered  than  in  those  exposed,  it  was  believed  that  the  firefly 
was  largely  responsible. 

317.  Diseases. — The  cowpea  is  subject  to  two  serious  diseases, 
the  cowpea  wilt   (Neocosmospora  vasinfecta,  var.  tracheiphila 

1  Louisiana   Sta.  Bui.  No.  40    (1896),   p.   1448. 


LEGUMES    FOR   SEED 


255 


Erw.  Sm.),  and  the  root-knot  {Hetcrodcra  radicicola  (Greef.) 
MiilL).  Both  occur  most  commonly  on  sandy  soils,  and  are 
likely  to  occur  together.  The  Iron  cowpea  is  recommended  by 
the  United  States  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  as  resistant  to  both 
diseases.  The  variety,  however,  is  rather  late  in  maturing,  and 
not  especially  prolific  in  seed.  The 
cowpea  wilt  does  not  attack  other 
plants;  hence  growing  other  crops 
for  two  years  will  give  temporary 
relief.  The  same  nematode  worm 
produces  root-knot  on  other  plants; 
such  as,  cotton,  okra,  peaches,  and 
certain  garden  vegetables.  Rotation 
of  crops  is,  therefore,  less  effective; 
but  assuming  Iron  cowpea  not  to  be 
attacked  by  this  disease,  the  following 
rotation  of  crops  is  recommended: 
first  year,  maize  with  Iron  cowpeas 
between  the  rows;  second  year,  oats 
followed  by  either  beggar  weed,  vel- 
vet bean  or  Iron  cowpeas;  third 
year,  and,  if  necessary,  fourth  year, 
cotton.^ 

318.  Wilt. — Infection  occurs  by  the  spread  of  the  mycelium  through  the 
soil.  The  fungus  finds  entrance  to  the  plant  through  the  small  roots,  develops 
in  the  water  ducts  of  stem,  small  branches,  and  petioles  of  leaves.  Though 
the  mycelium  is  white,  its  destructive  work  imparts  a  brown  color  to  the 
wood.  The  abundant  hyphal  growth  in  the  water  vessels  shuts  off  the  water 
supply  of  the  plant,  and  within  a  day  or  two  after  the  brown  color  appears 
the  plant  dies. 

319.  Root-knot,  also  known  as  root-gall,  enters  the  roots  of  cowpeas, 
producing  by  irritation  of  plant-cells  swollen,  bead-like  tumors  on  the  roots. 
It  attacks  both  tap  and  lateral  roots.  The  forms  of  the  galls  vary;  the  surface 
is  at  first  smooth,  then  cracked,  scurfy,  and  more  or  less  decayed.  The  eggs 
hatch  in  the  tissue  of  the  old  gall  from  which  the  nematodes  force  their  way 
into  fresh  parts  of  the  same  root  or  find  their  way  out  into  the  soil  where 
they  hunt  a  new  root  in  which  to  take  up  existence.     The  number  of  nematodes 

»U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bu.  PI.  Ind.  Bui.  No.  25   (1905).  p.  67. 


Healthy  and  diseased  roots  of  cow- 
pea. The  diseased  roots  on  the 
left  show  tufts  produced  by  the 
wilt  fungus. 

(After  Orton) 


256  THE   FORAGE   AND   FIBER   CROPS   IN   AMERICA 

determines  the  size  of  the  gall,  the  hatching  of  eggs  and  spread  of  new 
nematodes  increasing  the  size.  The  galls  resemble  the  swellings  caused  by 
clubfoot  in  cabbage,  from  which  they  may  be  distinguished  in  cross-section 
under  the  microscope  by  eggs,  larvae,  or  cysts  of  the  nematodes  in  some  stage 
of  development.     The  life  cycle  is  said  to  require  about  one  month. 

320.  Collateral  Reading. — Alva  Agee:  The  Cowpea  in  the  North.  Penn- 
sylvania  State   Dept.  Agr.   Bui.   No.    130,    1904. 

North  Carolina  Horticultural  Society:  The  Cowpea.  Experiment  Farm, 
Southern  Pines,  N.  C:  The  Society, 

F.  Lamson-Scribner:  Southern  Forage  Plants.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers' 
Bui.  No.   102   (1899),  pp.  33-7. 

Jared  G.  Smith:  Cowpeas.     U.  S.  Dept  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  No.  89,   1899. 

C.  L.  Newman:   Cowpea  Experiments.     Arkansas  Station  Bui.  No.   11,   1903. 

J.  F.  Duggar:   Cowpea  Culture.     Alabama   Station  Bui.   No.   118,   1902. 

J.  B.  Killebrew:  Grasses  and  Forage  Plants.  Tennessee  Station  Bui.  Vol.  XI 
(1898),  Nos.  2,  3,  and  4,  pp.  95-99,  108-111. 


XIV 


LEGUMES  FOR  SEED 

I.     COWPEAS 

321.  Time  of  Harvesting. — When  picked  by  hand  for  seed, 
the  crop  may  be  harvested  when  the  pods  and  seeds  have  become 
thoroughly  mature.  If  vines  are  harvested  primarily  for  the 
seed,  cutting  before  thoroughly  dry  will  prevent  loss  of  seed, 
and  in  some  cases  loss  from  mildew  on  pods,  which  not  infre- 
quently occurs  when  left  to  ripen  for  hand  picking. 

The  Arkansas  Station  has  shown  that  success  in  curing  cow- 
pea  hay  depends  largely  on  the  stage  of  maturity.  Varieties 
representing  five  seasons  of  growth  were  planted  June  9,  and 
subsequently  cut  at  four  stages  of  maturity  as  follows:  (i) 
when  first  pods  had  formed;  (2)  first  pods  ripe;  (3)  half  the 
pods  ripe;  (4)  all  the  pods  ripe.  The  following  table  shows 
the  varieties  used  and  their  season  of  maturity: 

Influence  of  Stage  of  Maturity  on  the  Curing  of  Cowpea  Hay 


Variety 


Season  of 
maturity 


Date 

of  ripening 

first  pods 


Time  required 

to  ripen  first 

pods,  days 


Warren's  New  Hybrid 

Warren's  Extra  Early 

Whippoorwill 

Taylor 

Clay 


Very  early 

Early 

Medium 

Late 
Very  late 


Aug.  15 
Aug.  20 
Aug.  28 
Sept.  8 
Sept.  14 


Mowing  when  the   first  pods   were   forming  resulted   in  the 
very  early,  early,  and  medium  varieties  curing  into  indifferent, 


257 


258 


THE   FORAGE   AND   FIBER   CROPS   IN   AMERICA 


moldy,  and  slightly  rotten  hay;  while  the  late  and  very  late 
varieties  cut  at  the  same  stage  of  maturity  rotted  before  the 
vines  could  become  hay.  The  early  varieties  cut  when  the  first 
pods  were  ripening  cured  into  very  fair  hay,  but  the  late  vari- 
eties rotted  and  molded.  Good  hay  was  obtained  from  mowing 
the  late  variety  (Taylor)  when  the  pods  were  half  ripe,  but 
the  very  late  variety   (Clay)   made  only  indifferent  hay  when 


Cowpea  huller  with  hulling  cylinder  exposed 
(From  photo  by  Thompson) 

the  pods  were  all  ripe.  During  five  years  with  a  large  number 
of  varieties,  but  few  have  been  successfully  converted  into  hay 
when  mown  in  vigorous  growth.  On  the  other  hand  a  number 
of  varieties  have  been  cured  in  good  condition  when  cut  fully 
ripe,  even  after  having  lain  in  the  field  through  several  days 
of  rain  and  little  sun.^    The  South  Carolina  Station  found  that 


^Arkansas  Sta.  Bui.  No.  80  (1903),  p.  75. 


LEGUMES    FOR   SEED 


259 


CYLINDER 


CONCAVE  HEAD 


cowpea  vine  hay  increased  in  protein  from  the  stage  of  full 
bloom  and  reached  its  maximum  when  peas  were  formed/  Al- 
though varying  with  the  variety  and  the  weight  of  the  crop, 
on  the  whole,  the  best  time  to  cut  for  hay  is  when  seeds  are  well 
formed  and  the  leaflets  and  pods  have  begun  to  turn  yellow. 

322.  Method  of  Harvesting. — When  cowpeas  are  sown  in  the 
maize  at  the  time  of  "laying  by"  they  are  usually  not  harvested 
for  hay,  on  account  of  the  difficulties  necessarily  involved,  al- 
though occasionally  they  are  pulled 
by  hand.  Ordinarily  men  and  boys 
pick  the  ripened  pods  and  place 
them  in  sacks.  Sometimes  on  ac- 
count of  the  differences  in  time  of 
ripening  a  field  is  gone  over  twice 
in  this  way.  The  pods  are  left  in 
the  sacks  until  threshed.  If  in  small 
quantities,  hulling  or  threshing  is 
done  with  a  flail  and  cleaned  with  a 
fanning  mill;  with  larger  quantities 
the  cowpea  huller  is  used.  If  planted 
in  drill  rows  three  feet  apart,  up- 
right varieties  could  without  doubt 
be  successfully  harvested  with  the 
bean  harvester  (269)  and  the  whole 
plant,  when  properly  cured,  threshed  in  an  ordinary  grain 
thresher.  Such  practise  is  not  common,  due  doubtless  to  the 
fact  that  cowpeas  planted  between  rows  of  maize  are  ample  to 
furnish  seed  required. 

Those  varieties  which  produce  the  largest  yield  of  vines  are 
those  in  which  the  trailing  habit  is  most  pronounced,  and  con- 
sequently offer  the  greatest  difficulty  in  harvesting.  Generally, 
however,  the  ranker  growing  varieties  are  used  as  soil  ren- 
ovators and  for  pasture;  while  bush  varieties  are  recommended 

1  South  Carolina  Sta.  Rpt.  (1899),  p.  170. 


Parts  of  a  cowpea  huller 


26o  THE    FORAGE   AND   FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

for  hay  because  they  are  more  easily  cut,  handled,  and  cured, 
and  hold  their  leaflets  better.  Usually  the  scythe  or  mowing- 
machine  is  used,  but  difficulty  is  experienced  in  cutting  the  mass 
of  trailing  and  tangled  vines.  So  far  as  the  writer  knows, 
the  pea  harvester  used  commonly  for  harvesting  field  peas  in 
Canada  has  not  been  tried.     (281) 

323.  Curing  Hay. — Although  the  principles  are  the  same, 
curing  cowpeas  is  more  difficult  than  red  clover  or  alfalfa. 
Handling  the  crop  before  the  leaflets  become  brittle  is  essential. 
According  to  the  Alabama  Station  the  leaflets  constitute  30  per 
cent,  of  the  weight  of  hay,  and  are  about  twice  as  high  in  protein 
as  the  other  portion  of  the  plant.  With  different  varieties  from 
51  to  75  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  entire  plant  was  ob- 
tained in  hay,  the  remainder  being  in  roots,  stubble  and  fallen 
leaves  (leaflets).  When  stored  in  a  tight  place  in  a  half-cured 
condition,  as  sometimes  recommended,  fermentation  and  rotting 
were  excessive  and  the  product  unsatisfactory.  Wilting,  placing 
in  small  cocks  and  covering  with  hay  caps  produced  good  re- 
sults and  the  method  is  recommended  as  economical.^ 

The  Mississippi  Station  2  has  found  the  following  a  practicable  method  of 
curing  hay:  The  crop  being  mown  in  favorable  weather  in  August  or  Sep- 
tember, the  vines  are  raked  up  the  same  or  the  following  day,  and  put  into 
cocks  of  the  size  that  two  men  can  handle  with  a  fork  when  cured.  The  hay 
is  left  in  the  cocks  for  four  or  five  days,  meanwhile  being  turned  over  once 
or  twice,  then  hauled  to  the  barn  or  put  into  a  stack.  When  put  into  stacks 
the  sides  of  the  latter  are  built  straight  up,  while  a  good  covering  of  grass 
is  used.  When  harvesting  falls  in  rainy  weather  the  vines  are  left  to  cure 
on  the  ground,  when  they  are  hauled  directly  to  storage. 

For  storage,  rail  pens  made  of  ten-foot  rails  are  often  used.  After  filling 
in  three  or  four  feet  of  cowpea  hay,  a  layer  of  rails  is  put  across  when  another 
quantity  of  hay  is  added,  followed  by  a  layer  of  rails,  and  so  on  until  a  height 
of  ten  or  twelve  feet  is  reached.  The  pen  is  then  roofed  over  with  straw, 
hay,  sorghum,  or  other  cheap  roofing.  In  feeding,  two  or  three  rails  are 
removed  so  that  the  live  stock  can  feed  upon  the  first  layer;  when  this  has 
been  eaten  a  layer  of  rails  is  removed  and  hay  allowed  to  settle  down  where 
live  stock  can  reach  it. 

1  Alabama  Sta.  Bul^  No.   118   (1902). 

2  Mississippi   Sta.   Bui.  No.  84    (1904),  p.  16. 


LEGUMES    FOR    SEED 


261 


Frame  for  curing  cowpea  hay.  The  frame  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  open  shelves  one  above  the 
other.  Rails  or  poles  placed  12  inches  apart 
form  the  shelves;  the  horizontal  supports  are 
far  enough  apart  to  make  the  shelves  2  feet 
apart.  Upright  posts  with  one  end  securely  in 
the  ground  carry  the  horizontal  supports.  The 
diagonal  braces  are  1  x  4  inches. 


324.  Production  and  Yield. — From  the  census  it  appears  that 
in  1899  about  six  million  bushels  of  seed  were  raised  with  an 
average  yield  of  about 
eight  bushels  per  acre.  At 
the  Alabama  Station  28 
varieties  ranged,  during 
four  years,  from  7  to  23 
bushels  of  seed,  and  17 
varieties,  during  three 
years,  ranged  from  three- 
fourths  to  two  tons  of  hay 
per  acre.  In  a  series  of 
fertilizer  tests  the  yield  of 
seed  per  acre  was  about 
16  bushels.^  Twenty-one 
of  the  46  best  varieties  of 
cowpeas  tested  at  the  Georgia  Station  yielded  green  vines 
ranging  from  9  to  12  tons  per  acre,  and  seed  varying  from  25 
to  42  bushels  per  acre. 

At  the  Arkansas  Station  with  the  rows  3.5  feet  apart,  the 
yield  of  peas  ranged  from  40  bushels  to  nothing,  while  the  yield 
of  hay  ranged  from  8,700  to  700  pounds,  not  including  the  peas. 
Where  8,700  pounds  of  hay  were  produced  the  yield  of  peas 
was  in  addition  2.1  bushels  (Whippoorwill),  while  where  the 
700  pounds  of  hay  were  produced  the  yield  of  peas  in  addition 
was  22.3  bushels  (New  Era).^  During  five  years  varieties  well 
suited  to  the  production  of  hay  have  yielded  well  above  two 
tons  per  acre,  not  including  peas  and  hulls,  and  when  the  peas 
were  harvested  with  the  vines  the  average  has  been  approx- 
imately three  tons  per  acre."  At  the  Illinois  Station  the  best 
ten  varieties  averaged  26  bushels  of  peas  to  the  acre.* 

1  Alabama  Sta.  Bui.  No.  118   (1902),  pp.  13,  18,  20. 

2  Arkansas  Sta.  Bui.  No.  11   (1903),  p.  29. 

3  Arkansas  Sta.  Bui.  No.  80  (1903),  p.  70. 
*  Illinois  Sta.  Circ.  No.  69   (1903),  p.  5. 


262  T1]E    FORAGE   AND   FIBER    CROFS    IN    AMERICA 

325.  Use. — As  forage  either  green  or  dried,  it  is  readily- 
eaten  by  cattle  and  sheep.  The  dried  forage  is  similar  in  com- 
position and  digestibility  to  alfalfa  hay,  and  has  been  found 
especially  valuable  for  milch  cows,  reducing  the  amount  of 
bran  and  other  concentrates  required  in  the  ration.  (230) 
It  makes  an  excellent  pasture  for  swine,  but  is  less  desirable 
for  cattle  and  sheep  on  account  of  its  liability  to  produce  bloat. 
The  seeds,  either  green  or  dried,  are  for  domestic  uses,  when 
cooked,  equal  in  taste  and  nutritive  qualities  to  field  beans,  and 
may  be  fed  to  all  classes  of  live  stock  without  cooking,  for 
which  they  have  high  value.  The  Tuskegee  Station  has  prepared 
and  tested  25  receipts  for  cooking  the  dried  and  green  seeds 
and  the  green  pods,  including  soups,  salads,  fritters,  and  griddle 
cakes.     The  roasted  seeds  are  a  substitute  for*  coffee.^ 

Since  the  whole  plant  has  a  high  feeding  value,  there  is  no 
need  of  separating  the  seed  when  feeding  to  domestic  animals. 
During  three  years  the  Alabama  Station  compared  the  yield 
of  seed  and  of  hay  made  by  Wonderful  cowpeas,  obtaining  510 
pounds  of  peas  and  3,608  pounds  of  hay."  Since  well-cured 
cowpea  hay  is  in  composition,  digestibility,  and  feeding  value 
similar  to  wheat  bran,  hay  rather  than  seed  production  is  most 
profitable.  The  office  which  the  plant  performxS  in  protecting 
bare  land  and  in  renovating  soils  by  supplying  both  humus  and 
fertilizing  constituents  is  far-reaching. 

326.  Value. — The  cowpea  has  many  points  which  make  it  a 
valuable  cultivated  crop:  it  furnishes  palatable  and  nutritious 
food  for  both  man  and  domestic  animals;  it  will  give  a  sat- 
isfactory yield  over  a  wide  variety  of  soils  and  conditions  of 
soil;  it  is  easily  grown  and  at  comparatively  little  expense;  the 
seed  can  readily  be  produced  on  farm,  at  least  seeming  to  reduce 
the  cost  of  seed;  it  fits  into  crop  rotations;  it  universally  pro- 
duces an  abundance  of  root-tubercles,  and  has  undoubted  value 

1  Tuskegee  Sta.  Bui.  No.  S   (1903),  p.  10. 

2  Alabama  Sta.  Bui.  No.   118   (1902),  p.  31. 


LEGUMES    FOR    SEED  263 

in  soil  improvement  not  only  from  what  the  harvested  crop 
leaves  upon  the  soil,  but  also  from  the  character  of  the  manure 
produced  when  the  crop  is  fed.  Aside  from  diseases  and  insect 
enemies,  its  one  great  drawback  is  the  difficulty  of  harvesting 
the  crop,  whether  for  seed  or  for  forage. 

"An  enormous  increase  in  the  acreage  of  cowpeas  would  do  more,  we 
think,  than  any  other  immediately  practicable  reform  to  cure  the  ills  of 
southern  farming,  to  enrich  the  soil,  to  raise  the  acreage  yield  of  all  other 
crops,  to  build  up  the  live  stock  industries,  and  to  promote  diversified  farming."  1 

327.  Feeding  Value, — The  cowpea  is  especially  rich  in  protein,  hence  a  de- 
sirable feeding  stuff.  While  it  makes  an  excellent  silage  readily  eaten  by  live 
stock,  the  great  difficulty  is  in  preserving  it.  When  so  used  it  has  been  found  to 
be  good  practise  to  grow  the  peas  with  maize  in  order  to  facilitate  the  process 
of  ensilaging  and  to  enhance  its  keeping  qualities.  Silage  of  this  sort  is 
reported  to  contain  from  10  to  25  per  cent,  of  protein.  Maize  and  cowpea 
silage  was  found  by  the  Kansas  Station  -  to  be  more  profitable  than  growing 
these  two  crops  together  either   for   forage  or    for  pasture. 

At  the  Oklahoma  Station  ^  shoats  weighing  115  pounds  were  divided  into 
two  lots.  Lot  1  was  fed  a  mixture  of  kafir  corn  meal  and  maize  meal,  taken 
in  equal  quantities,  and  in  addition,  cowpea  hay  ad  libitum.  Lot  2  was  fed 
only  the  grain  mixture.  For  each  pound  of  gain,  lot  1  consumed  4.75  pounds 
of  grain;  while  lot  2  consumed  8.2  pounds  of  grain  for  each  pound  of  gain. 
In  another  trial  this  station  found  that  cowpeas  seven  weeks  old  on  wheat 
stubble  furnished  good  cow  pasture,  that  after  being  eaten  low,  and  the  cows 
taken  off,  the  second  growth  furnished  equally  good  grazing.* 

The  Alabama  Station  ^  made  two  tests,  each  30  days  in  length,  of  sub- 
stituting cowpea  hay  for  wheat  bran  in  a  ration  for  milch  cows.  The  results 
showed  the  average  cost  of  food  for  one  pound  of  butter  to  be  12.3  cents 
with  the  cowpea  ration,  and  15.9  cents  with  the  wheat  bran.jation.  The  cow- 
pea ration  showed  a  saving  of  23  per  cent,  in  cost  of  food  per  pound  of 
butter  when  wheat  bran  cost  $20  per  ton.  It  was  shown  in  the  tests  that  a 
ton  of  cowpea  hay  was  equal  in  feeding  value  to  86  per  cent.  (1,720  pounds) 
of  a  ton  of  wheat  bran. 

The  Maryland  Station  <*  obtained  better  results  with  cowpea  silage  than 
with  either  cowpea  hay  or  maize  silage.  When  maize  silage  was  fed  with 
cowpea  silage,  equal  parts  by  weight,  the  yield  of  milk  was  greater  than  when 
cowpea  hay  was  fed,  but  less  than  when  cowpea  silage  alone  was  fed. 

1  Alabama  Sta.  Bui.  No.  118   (1902),  p.  6. 

2  Kansas  Sta.  Bui.  No.  123   (1904),  pp.  220-8. 
8  Oklahoma  Sta.  Rpt.  1899-1900,  p.  48. 

*  Oklahoma  Sta.  Bui.  No.  48   (1900),  p.  10. 
■5  Alabama  Sta.  Bui.  No.  123   (1903). 
'Maryland  Sta.  Bui.  No.  98  (1904),  pp.  63-72. 


264  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AiVlERlCA 

The  New  Jersey  Station  ^  compared  17  pounds  of  cowpea  hay  witli  a  grain 
ration  of  the  following  weights:  wheat  bran  4,  dried  brewers'  grains  3,  and 
cotton  seed  meal  2  pounds,  36  pounds  of  maize  silage  being  fed  with  each 
ration.  The  experiment  was  conducted  with  four  cows  and  continued  for 
36  days.  The  result  showed  a  gain  of  8.3  per  cent,  more  milk  and  15.2  per 
cent,  more  butter  from  the  grain  ration,  all  the  cows  testing  higher  in  butter 
fat  when  fed  grain.  On  the  other  hand,  one  hundred  pounds  of  milk  cost 
39.8  cents,  and  a  pound  of  butter  8.82  cents  when  the  cowpea  ration  was 
employed,  while  the  respective  costs  were  60.5  cents  and  12.06  cents  with 
the  grain  ration.  Other  experiments  showed  cowpea  hay  to  be  equal  in 
feeding  value  to  alfalfa  hay,  while  crimson  clover  hay  was  less  valuable. 
Cowpea  silage,  with  alfalfa  or  with  crimson  clover  hay,  was  not  equal  to  maize 
silage  with  alfalfa  hay. 

The  Tennessee  Station  2  conducted  a  feeding  experiment  with  milch  cows 
for  120  days.  Twelve  cows,  divided  into  three  groups  of  four  each,  were 
employed.  The  rations  were  fed  in  two  equal  parts,  and  in  proportion  to 
the  live  weight  of  the  animal.  Silage  (30  pounds  in  each  ration)  was  the 
principal  roughage  employed,  though  cowpea  hay  was  also  regarded  as  such. 
To  determine  the  relative  efficiency  of  protein  in  cotton  seed  meal,  cowpea 
hay  and  wheat  bran,  4  pounds  of  cotton  seed  meal  and  6  pounds  of  wheat 
bran  were  fed  in  group  1 ;  4  pounds  of  cotton  seed  meal  and  7  pounds  of 
cowpea  hay  in  group  2;  and  6  pounds  of  wheat  bran  and  13  pounds  of 
cowpea  hay  in  group  3.  The  cowpea  hay  was  fed  in  a  finely  cut  condition. 
It  was  the  aim,  in  the  substitution  of  this  hay  for  cotton  seed  meal  and  for 
wheat  bran,  to  maintain  the  relative  proportion  of  protein  in  each  ration. 
The  amount  of  dry  matter  consumed  for  the  production  of  a  gallon  of  milk 
was  6.2,  6.5,  and  7.2  pounds  with  groups  1,  2,  and  3,  respectively;  per 
pound  of  butter  produced,  the  digestible  matter  consum::d  was  12.7,  12,3 
and  13.1  pounds  with  groups  1,  2,  and  3.  Group  2  consumed  the  largest 
amount  of  the  protein  for  1,000  pounds  of  live  weight  and  made  the  cheapest 
gallon  of  milk,  5.2  cents,  and  the  cheapest  pound  of  butter,  9.9  cents.  Group 
3,  which  consumed  the  smallest  amount  of  dry  matter,  produced  a  gallon  of 
milk  at  a  cost  of  6  cents,  and  a  pound  of  butter  at  a  cost  of  10.9  cents.  Group 
1  produced  a  gallon  of  milk  at  a  cost  of  5.9  cents,  and  a  pound  of  butter  at 
a  cost   of   12.2  cents. 

328.  Acquirement  of  Nitrogen.— The  Storrs  (Connecticut) 
Station  found  that  cowpeas  grown  in  sand  and  supplied  with 
nutritive  solutions  including  nitrogen  gained  considerably  in 
nitrogen  when  root-tubercles  were  present.^     By  means  of  box 

1  New  Jersey  Sta.  Rpt.  1903,  pp.  388-396. 

2  Tennessee  Sta.  Bui.  15   (1902),  No.  4. 
'Connecticut  Storrs  Sta.  Rpt.  1891,  p.  17. 


LEGUMES   FOR   SEE0 


265 


experiments,  the  New  Jersey  Station  concluded  that  in  two 
years  the  gain  of  nitrogen  to  the  soil  in  which  cowpeas  grew 
was  equivalent  to  an  increase  of  1,600  pounds  of  nitrogen  to 
an  acre  one  foot  in  depth.  This  was  not  all  due  to  the  cow- 
peas,  but  in  part  to  processes  within  ^he  soil  itself.^ 

The  Delaware  Station  reports  that  a  maximum  crop  of  alfalfa 
yielded  1,230  pounds  (200  pounds  of  nitrogen)  of  protein  per 
acre,  while  maximum  crops  of  cowpeas  and  crimson  clover 
yielded  about  725  pounds  each  of  protein  (115  pounds  of  ni- 
trogen) per  acre.  Since,  however,  a  crop  of  crimson  clover  and 
of  cowpeas  may  be  grown  from  the  same  land  in  one  season, 
these  crops  are  recommended  where  alfalfa  fails  to  thrive.^ 
The  Alabama  Station  found  in  the  entire  growth  of  cowpeas  in 
an  average  of  three  cases  70  pounds  of  nitrogen  per  acre,  28 
per  cent,  of  which,  or  20  pounds,  was  in  the  roots,  stubble,  and 
fallen  leaflets.^ 


Influence  of  Cowpeas  and  Velvet  Beans  on  Succeeding  Crops 


Crop 

From      plowing      in      whole 
plant  of  cowpeas  and  velvet 
beans,   except   pods   of   cow- 
peas 

From   plowing  in   roots   and 

stubble      of      cowpeas      and 

velvet  beans 

Increased 

yield 

lb. 

Increased 

yield 
per  cent. 

Increased 

yield 

lb. 

Increased 

yield 
per  cent. 

Seed   cotton 
Maize,  grain 
Oats,    grain 
Wheat,   grain      . 
Sorghum,  hay     . 

567 
413 
544 
339 
4,200 

63 

81 

189 

182 

78 

208 
241 
496 
402 
4,160 

18 

32 

334 

215 

57 

iNew  Jersey  Sta.   Bui.  No.   180,  p.  Z1 . 

2  Delaware  Sta.  Bui.  No.  55,  pp.  3-8;  Rpt.  1901,  pp.  8-13 

3  Alabama  Sta.  Bui.  No.  120  (1902),  p.  123. 


266 


THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


329.  Influence  on  Other  Crops. — The  Alabama  Station  conducted  more 
than  fifty  experiments  during  five  years  to  determine  the  effect  of  cowpeas 
and  velvet  beans  on  the  yield  of  other  crops.  The  average  increase  in  the 
yields  of  succeeding  crops  was  practically  the  same,  whether  cowpeas  or  velvet 
beans  were  used.  In  the  case  of  velvet  beans  the  whole  plant  was  used,  while 
in  the  case  of  cowpeas  the  pods  were  first  harvested.  The  table  on  page  265 
shows  the  increase  in  yield  of  succeeding  crops  caused  by  plowing  in  the 
whole  crop  and  by  plowing  in  roots  and   stubble  only. 

The  greater  increase  was  obtained  from  wheat  and  oats  which  were  fall 
sown.  This  was  attributed  to  the  fact  that  these  crops  left  the  land  unoc- 
cupied for  the  shortest  length  of  time.  Plowing  in  the  vines  gave  larger 
yields  with  spring  sown  crops  than  where  only  the  roots  and  stubble  were 
plowed  under,  and  the  effect  on  sandy  land  was  less  transitory,  increased 
yields  being  obtained  in  the  third  and  fourth  crops.  The  fact  that  wheat 
and  oats  increased  less  in  yield  in  the  first  crop  where  vines  were  plowed 
under  than  where  roots  and  stubble  only  were  plowed  under  was  attributed 
to  the  former  leaving  the  land  too  loose,  a  condition  that  could,  it  was  be- 
lieved,  have  been   avoided   by  better  preparation. 

Since  cowpeas  are  known  to  acquire  nitrogen  from  the  air  in  large  quanti- 
ties and  because  of  their  luxuriant  growth  above  ground,  it  is  considered 
good  farm  practise  to  plow  this  crop  under  in  order  to  enrich  the  soil,  and 
to  increase  the  supply  of  organic  matter.  The  Tennessee  Station,  however, 
conducted  an  experiment  to  determine  the  relative  value  of  cutting  off,  plow- 
ing  under,   and    pasturing   off   this    crop,    with   the    following    results: 


Treatment  of  land  for  wheat 

Yield, 

per   acre 

Grain,  bu. 

Straw,  tons 

Cowpeas,   cut  off 

Cowpeas,  plowed  under 

Cowpeas,  fed  on  land 

36.8 
39.7 
37.0 

2.16 
2.16 

2.04 

In  discussing  the  results,  the  Station  ^  concluded  that,  considering  the  high 
feeding  value  of  cowpeas  when  fed  to  milch  cows,  cowpeas  should  always  be 
fed  and  the  droppings  returned  to  the  land.  On  the  other  hand,  although  the 
highest  yield  obtained  was  where  cowpeas  were  cut  off  and  a  home  mixed 
complete  fertilizer  used,  in  reality  when  the  cost  of  the  fertilizer  was  con- 
sidered it  was  not  more  profitable  than  where  the  cowpeas  alone  were  plowed 
under.  Where  cowpeas  were  plowed  under  and  commercial  fertilizers  added, 
the  returns  were  larger  for  the  same  relative  cost  than  where  commercial 
fertilizer  alone  was  used;  and  when  so  used,  experience  indicated  that  lime, 
phosphates,  and  potash  together  gave  the  best  results. 

1  Tennessee  Sta.  Bui.  Vol.  XIV   (1901),  No  2,  pp.  48-59. 


LEGUMES   FOR   SEED  267 

The  Maryland  Station  ^  compared  the  yield  of  wheat,  hay,  and  maize  when 
grown  on  soils  treated  as  follows:  no  lime;  cowpeas  and  no  lime;  cowpeas 
and  lime.  Compared  with  the  yield  on  the  unlimed  plat,  the  increase  was 
12  per  cent,  where  cowpeas  alone  were  used  and  24  per  cent,  where  cowpeas 
and  lime  were  used.  In  hay  and  fodder  there  was  a  loss  of  19  per  cent,  where 
cowpeas  alone  were  used,  but  a  gain  of  24  per  cent,  where  cowpeas  and  lime 
were  used.  In  both  cases  the  net  gains,  from  the  use  of  cowpeas  with  lime 
and  cowpeas  alone,  were  practically  identical. 

An  average  of  four  years'  trial  at  the  Arkansas  Station  with  the  cowpea 
plant  against  commercial  fertilizer  for  wheat  showed  the  former  to  be  more 
profitable.  The  North  Carolina  Station  found  cowpea  plant  with  acid  phosphate 
more  productive  for  wheat  when  tried  two  years.  That  station  advises  that 
good  practise  requires  that,  while  striving  for  one  plant  food  element,  such  as 
nitrogen,  the  other  essential  elements  must  be  held  in  mind. 

The  Louisiana  Station  2  grew  sugar  cane  for  three  years  on  first  and  second 
year  cowpea  stubble,  and  upon  plats  of  the  same  area  in  which  the  cowpea 
vine  had  been  turned  under.  With  no  other  treatment  the  plats  in  which 
the  pea  vines  had  been  turned  under  were  credited  with  the  following  in- 
creased yield:  first  year,  2.91  tons;  second  year,  3.69  tons;  and  third  year, 
0.82  tons.  While  it  is  often  expensive  and  difficult,  where  growth  is  luxuriant, 
plowing  under  cowpeas  in  the  fall  is  perhaps  the  most  generally  accepted 
economic  practise,  since  the  farmer's  capital  is  not  infrequently  inadequate  to 
the  demands  of  feeding  off  and  applying  the  manure.  Where  this  is  done  it 
will  sometimes  be  beneficial  to  seed  the  land  to  a  winter  forage  crop  in  order 
to  prevent  loss  by  leaching. 

Oats  grown  after  cowpeas  turned  under  at  the  Alabama  Station  ^ 
produced  10.4  bushels  of  grain  and  229  pounds  of  straw  per  acre  more  than 
oats  similarly  grown  after  German  millet.  Compared  with  other  crops  for 
green  manuring  for  oats,  cowpeas  ranked  as  follows:  (1)  velvet  beans,  (2) 
cowpeas,   (3)  crab  grass,  weeds,  and  German  millet. 


330.  Method  of  Utilizing  the  Crop.— There  are  four  general 
ways  that  the  cowpea  crop  may  be  utilized  in  improving  the 
crop-producing  power  of  the  soil  in  connection  with  the  or- 
dinary system  of  farm  management: 

(i)  The  entire  crop  may  be  plowed  under  while  green. 

(2)  The  crop  may  be  allowed  to  decay  upon  the  surface  of 
the  ground  and  plowed  under  the  following  spring. 

1  Maryland  Sta.  Bui.  No.  66  (1900),  p.  127. 

2  Louisiana  Sta.  Bui.  No.  28  (1890). 
'Alabama  Sta.  Bui.  No.  95   (1898). 


268  THE    FORAGE    AND    EUSKR    CRUl'S    IN    AMERICA 

(3)  The  field  may  be  grazed  and  the  remaining  stubble  and 
the  added  manure  subsequently  plowed  under. 

(4)  The  crop  may  be  mowed  for  hay  and  the  stubble  only 
plowed  under. 

Which  of  these  methods  will  be  best  will  depend  somewhat  on 
the  character  of  the  soil,  the  amount  of  live  stock  available, 
and  the  system  of  farm  management.  On  heavy  clay  soils  the 
plowing  under  of  a  large  growth  of  green  cowpeas  may  be 
desirable  when  on  a  light,  sandy  soil  it  might  make  the  soil 
temporarily  too  loose.  Leaving  a  crop  to  decay  on  the  surface 
may  be  desirable  where  the  soil  is  sandy  and  liable  to  wash 
during  the  winter. 

331.  History. — The  cultivation  of  cowpeas  by  the  orientals 
dates  back  into  centuries.  The  plant  was  used  for  forage  for 
domestic  animals  while  its  seeds  became  an  article  of  human 
diet.  It  was  introduced  into  the  southern  states  of  North 
America  by  a  South  Carolina  planter  who  obtained  a  small 
quantity  of  seed  from  the  captain  of  a  trading  vessel  from  India 
or  China  early  in  the  eighteenth  century. 

II.     SOY    BEAN 

332.  Description. — The  soy  bean  is  an  upright,  rather  woody 
annual,  growing  two  to  three,  rarely  four  feet  high.  The  three 
large  leaflets,  often  six  inches  long  and  four  inches  wide,  are 
borne  on  leaf  stalks  not  uncommonly  10  to  12  inches  in  length, 
giving  the  plant  the  appearance  of  being  much  branched.  The 
leaflets  are  a  large  part,  and  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  whole 
plant  when  used  for  forage,  and  are  liable  to  be  lost  in  curing 
for  hay.  The  small,  inconspicuous  lilac  or  violet  flowers  are 
borne  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  and  are  self-pollinated.  The 
pods  are  said  to  be  two  to  five-seeded.  Pods  with  more  than 
three  seeds  are,  however,  exceedingly  rare.  Haberlandt  reports 
that  plants  grown  in  Austria-Hungary  bore  about  200  pods  and 
450  seeds  each.     The  vaWes  of  the  pods  twist  as  they  open, 


LEGUMES    F(JR    SEED 


.69 


Medium  Early  Green  soy  bean 
(From  photo  by  Gilmore) 


which  occurs  very  readily  when  pods  ripen,  thus  causing  loss 
of  seed. 

The  seeds  are  globular,  more  or  less  compressed,  and  vary 
in  color  from  nearly  white  to 
black,  varieties  being  usually 
divided  according  to  the  color  of 
their  seeds  into  three  groups : 
white,  green,  and  black.  The 
seeds  vary  greatly  in  size.  A 
sample  of  Early  Green  con- 
tained 3,135  seeds,  and  of  Early 
Black  1,460  seeds  per  pound. 
This  plant  is  characterized  by 
the  abundance  of  the  conspicu- 
ous reddish-brown  hairs  which 
cover    all    parts    of    the    plant, 

especially  the  stems,  leaf  stalks,  and  pods.     It  has  a  stout  tap 
root;  but  in  general,  the  root  growth  is  rather  light. 

333.  Varieties. — Although  there  is  a  number  of  varieties,  the 
soy  bean  appears  much  less  variable  than  cowpeas.  Varieties, 
in  addition  to  the  color  of  the  seed,  are  classified  according  to 
the  time  of  maturity  into  early,  medium  early,  medium,  medium 
late,  and  late.  The  earlier  varieties  are  smaller,  and  usually 
produce  more  seed  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  plants.  For 
the  successful  culture  of  soy  beans,  it  is  quite  as  important  to 
plant  the  variety  suited  to  the  climate  and  other  conditions  of 
culture  and  use  as  it  is  in  the  culture  of  maize.  Perhaps  as 
a  better  knowledge  of  the  adaptation  of  several  varieties  is  ob- 
tained, the  cultivation  of  the  plant  will  become  more  extended. 

"The  'Early  White'  soy  bean  is  an  excellent  variety  to  grow  when  a  crop 
of  seed  is  desired,  particularly  in  the  North,  where  the  growing  season  is 
likely  to  be  short.  It  is  not  a  good  variety  to  grow  for  hay  or  soiling,  how- 
ever, on  account  of  the  small  size  of  the  plants  and  a  tendency  to  drop  the 
leaves  early.  'Medium  Early  Green'  is  one  of  the  best  varieties  to  plant  for 
hay,  as  it  yields  heavily  and  retains  its  leaves  well.  For  soiling  or  for  ensilage 
'Medium   Early   Green/    'Medium    Early    Black,'    or   the    'late'    green    or   black 


270  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

varieties  may  be  used,  according  to  the  length  of  the  season  and  the  time  at 
which  the  crop  is  to  be  used.  In  the  New  England  states  the  'Medium  Early 
Green'  variety  is  generally  preferred,  while  in  the  Central  states  'Medium 
Early  Black'  seems  to  be  the  favorite.  In  the  South  the  'medium'  or  'late' 
varieties  are  used,  some  preferring  one  and  some  another.  For  green  manuring 
the  large,  medium  or  late  varieties  are  best,  'Medium  Late  Black'  being  ex- 
cellent  for  this  purpose."  ^ 

334.  Distribution. — In  oriental  countries  the  use  of  legumes 
or  pulses'of  many  kinds  as  human  food  is  much  more  common 
than  in  Europe  and  America,  which,  in  connection  with  fish 
and  poultry,  accounts  for  the  less  extensive  use  of  red  meat 
among  orientals.  The  soy  bean  is  one  of  the  most  extensively 
used  of  these  legumes,  especially  in  Japan,  where  many  prep- 
arations are  made  from  it,  it  being  seldom,  if  ever,  used  alone 
as  a  vegetable.  It  has  been  introduced  into  Europe,  and  in 
1878  Haberlandt  published  results  of  experiments  strongly 
urging  its  cultivation  as  a  food  plant  for  both  man  and  domestic 
animals.  It  was  introduced  into  the  United  States  in  1854  with- 
out attracting  wide  attention  until  recent  years,  when  many 
new  varieties  have  been  introduced,  chiefly  through  the  efforts 
of  the  Massachusetts  and  the  Kansas  stations,  which  have  ex- 
perimented with  this  crop  quite  extensively. 

At  least  31  stations  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  have 
studied  this  plant,  and  most  of  them  have  reported  more  or  less 
favorably.  It  has  also  been  widely  tried  by  farmers  throughout 
the  United  States,  but  never  extensively  grown.  While  it  is  a 
plant  of  undoubted  value,  under  present  economic  conditions 
it  does  not  seem  destined  to  equal  in  importance  cowpeas, 
field  peas,  or  field  beans.  Whether  grown  for  seed  or  for 
forage,  in  practise  the  yields  have  been  disappointing,  although 
excellent  results  have  been  obtained  at  experiment  stations.  The 
Illinois  Station  reports,  with  six  maturing  varieties,  yields  of 
seed  ranging  from  28  to  42  bushels  per  acre.^  When  grown 
for  forage,  it  is  difficult  to  cure  properly,  and  when  grown  for 
seed  it  is  difficult  to  harvest  without  loss  of  seed. 

lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Farmers'  BuU  No.  58,  pp.  6,  7. 
2  Illinois  Sta.  Circ.  No.  69,  p.  7. 


LEGUMES    FOR    SEED 


271 


335.  Adaptation. — The  soy  bean  has  a  soil  adaptation  similar 
to  tliat  of  the  common  field  bean,  and  a  climatic  range  and 
adaptation  similar  to  that  of  maize.  In  general,  the  soy  bean 
finds  its  best  adaptation  south  of  the  climatic  range  of  field 
beans  and  north  of 
that  of  the  cowpea.  It 
is  less  easily  injured 
by  frost,  and  can  en- 
dure dry  weather  bet- 
ter than  the  field  bean. 
Soy  beans  will  grow, 
however,  on  soils  too 
sandy  and  poor  for 
field  beans,  and  are 
adapted  to  the  im- 
provement of  such  soils 
when  properly  inocu- 
lated. At  the  Vermont 
Station  cowpeas  yield- 
ed less  than  half  as 
much  dry  matter,  and 
less  than  two-thirds  as 
much  protein  as  the 
soy  bean. 

Soy  beans  are  char- 
acterized by  the  large  and  abundant  root-tubercles,  which 
the  tap  and  branch  roots  bear  when  soil  is  properly  in- 
oculated, especially  in  sandy  soils  comparatively  deficient 
in  available  nitrogen,  and  under  such  circumstances  are 
characterized  by  the  increased  vigor  and  size  of  inoculated 
compared  with  uninoculated  plants.  Practical  experience  has 
shown  that  this  plant  is  less  likely,  when  introduced  into  a  new 
region,  to  find  in  the  soil  the  proper  organisms  for  the  forma- 
tion of  root-tubercles.     The  inoculation  of  the  soil   with  soy 


Root  tubercles  on  soy  bean 
(After  Moore) 


2'J2  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

bean  root-tubercle  bacteria  when  the  plant  is  first  introduced  is, 
therefore,  of  the  highest  importance. 

336.  Seeding. — While  more  variation  in  the  time  of  planting 
is  possible,  in  general,  the  conditions  most  favorable  to  maize 
are  also  favorable  to  soy  beans.  It  is  better  to  plant  later  than 
maize  rather  than  earlier.  When  grown  for  seed,  planting  in 
drill  28  to  36  inches  apart  as  in  the  case  of  field  beans,  using 
seed  enough  to  obtain  about  six  plants  to  each  foot,  is  recom- 
mended. The  amount  of  seed  required  will  depend  on  the  size 
of  the  seed  and  the  favorableness  of  the  conditions  for  germina- 
tion. Usually  about  one-third  of  a  bushel  will  be  sufficient. 
Soy  beans  require  plenty  of  room  for  their  best  development, 
and  should  not  be  planted  too  thickly  for  seed.  For  the  produc- 
tion of  hay,  they  should  be  planted  somewhat  more  thickly, 
because  they  will  be  cut  when  less  mature.  While  they  may 
be  sown  as  in  the  case  of  wheat  and  oats,  probably  the  best 
method  is  to  close  every  other  outlet  to  the  grain  drill  so  that 
the  drill  rows  will  be  14  or  16  inches  apart,  using  two-thirds 
to  one  bushel  of  seed  per  acre.  If  sown  broadcast,  one  and  a 
half  bushels  per  acre  will  be  required.  In  the  southern  states, 
soy  beans  may  be  sown,  as  is  common  with  cowpeas,  between 
the  rows  of  maize  at  the  last  cultivation.  In  the  northern 
states  farmers  occasionally  plant  soy  beans  in  the  same  hill 
and  at  the  same  time  with  maize  intended  for  silage.  Without 
reducing  the  number  of  grains  of  maize  per  hill,  it  is  customary 
to  add  six  to  ten  soy  beans.  A  hand  planter  with  two 
hoppers  has  been  made  so  as  to  drop  maize  and  soy  beans  in 
the  same  hole. 

337.  Cultivation. — Under  favorable  conditions,  soy  beans 
come  up  quickly  and  grow  rapidly,  soon  shading  the  ground 
and  making  but  few  cultivations  necessary,  assuming  them  to 
have  been  planted  far  enough  apart  to  cultivate.  When  the 
beans  first  appear  above  ground,  the  young  plants  are  tender 


LEGUMES    FOR    SEED  273 

and  easily  broken,  but  after  several  leaves  have  been  formed, 
a  weeder  may  on  some  soils  be  used,  even  when  sown  for  hay. 
Cultivation  should  not  be  given  when  the  leaves  are  wet,  for 
reasons  given  under  field  beans.     (268) 

338.  Insect  and  Other  Enemies. — So  far  as  reported,  the  plant  has  no 
special  insect  or  fungous  foes.  It  has  been  known  to  be  attacked  by  grass- 
hoppers, a  caterpillar  and  a  leaf-miner,  and  the  underground  parts  of  the  stem 
by  the  bean  root-louse  (Tychea  phaseoli  Passerini),  but  none  of  these  has 
assumed   economic   importance.^ 

339.  Harvesting. — If  for  dry  forage,  the  crop  should  be  cut 
when  the  pods  begin  to  form;  if  for  silage,  the  pods  may  be 
allowed  to  become  somewhat  more  mature ;  while,  if  cut  for 
seed,  one-half  or  more  of  the  pods  should  be  mature.  If  the 
pods  become  too  mature,  they  will  burst  open,  and  much  of  the 
seed  will  be  lost  even  before  the  plants  are  harvested. 

For  hay,  or  silage,  soy  beans  may  be  harvested  with  the 
mowing-machine,  although  the  woody  stems  are  rather  difficult 
to  cut.  Large  varieties  may  be  successfully  cut  and  bound  with 
a  maize  harvester,  and  cured  into  hay  in  shocks.  Usually  the 
curing  is  similar  to  that  of  alfalfa,  or  clover,  but  is  more  diffi- 
cult on  account  of  the  large  leaves,  which  are  easily  lost  in 
curing.  For  seed,  the  bean  harvester  may  be  used.  The  or- 
dinary threshing  machine  can,  by  adjusting  or  removing  the 
concaves,  be  used  satisfactorily,  although  the  bean  thresher  may 
be  preferable.  In  small  quantities,  they  may  be  pulled  by  hand 
and  threshed  with  a  flail,  both  operations  being  comparatively 
easy  with  this  crop.  Care  is  required  in  storing  soy  beans  in 
order  that  fermentation,  to  which  they  are  subject,  may  not 
occur  and  injure  their  vitality.  Storing  in  loosely  woven  sacks 
is  recommended. 

340.  Value. — The  seeds  of  soy  beans  are  characterized  among 
legumes  in  not  having  any  starch  in  their  cotyledons,  and  in 

1  Kentucky  Sta.   Bui.  No.  98    (1902),  p.  20. 


274  THE   FORAGE   AND   FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

having  an  endosperm.  This  endosperm  contains  aleurone  (pro- 
tein) grains  and  obliterated  cells,  but  contains  no  starch.^  The 
seeds  contain  a  high  percentage  of  protein  and  an  extraor- 
dinarily high  percentage  of  fat,  being  in  both  respects  similar 
to  flax  seed  and  cotton  seed.  In  its  high  percentage  of  fat,  it 
is  quite  unlike  other  legumes  grown  for  their  seed,  except  the 
peanut.  Where  fed  to  milch  cows,  soy  bean  meal  has  been 
found  by  the  Massachusetts  Station  to  have  a  feeding  value 
equal  to  cotton  seed  meal,  and  the  Kansas  Station  found  that 
when  it  was  mixed  with  either  maize  meal  or  kafir  corn  meal, 
and  fed  to  pigs,  the  number  of  pounds  of  food  required  to 
produce  a  pound  of  pork  was  reduced  as  compared  with  either 
maize  meal  or  kafir  corn  meal  when  fed  alone.  The  composi- 
tion of  the  whole  plant  is  similar  to  that  of  red  clover;  and, 
although  the  soy  bean  is  somewhat  less  palatable,  it  is,  in  the 
proportion  to  which  it  is  eaten,  similar  in  feeding  value.  When 
placed  in  the  silo,  mixed  with  maize  or  in  alternate  layers,  it 
keeps  well,  is  readily  eaten  and  is  nutritious. 

341.  Collateral  Reading. — H.  Garman:  Kentucky  Forage  Plants,  pp.  16- 
21.     Kentucky  Station  Bui.   No.  98,   1902. 

Thomas  A.  Williams  and  C.  F.  Langworthy:  The  Soy  Bean  as  a  Forage 
Crop  and  as  a  Food  for  Man.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  No.  58,   1899. 

^Winton:  Microscopy  of  Vegetable  Foods,  p.  249. 


XV 


ROOT  CROPS 

I.     BEETS 

342.  Name. — The  term  "root  crops"  is  used  to  apply  rather 
loosely  to  a  class  of  plants,  mostly  biennials,  in  which  the  food 
supply  is  usually  stored  up  the  first  season  in  the  thickened 
stem  (hypocotyl)  and  primary  root  as  nourishment  for  the 
fruiting  stem  the  second  season.  With  regard  to  duration,  how- 
ever, there  are  exceptions,  rape  being  an  annual.  Even  in  a 
single  species,  such  as  the  beet,  individual  plants  may  be  found 
that  are  annual,  and  others  that  are  perennial.  In  some  in- 
stances, as  in  the  common  cabbage,  the  food  supply  is  stored 
up  in  the  leaves,  while  in  kohlrabi  it  is  stored  in  the  stem  alone. 
Custom  varies  as  to  the  use  of  the  term  "root  crop"  to  apply 
to  all  these  plants,  but  since  they  all  have  similar  adaptation 
and  uses,  and  require  somewhat  similar  cultural  methods,  they 
are  treated  together  in  this  chapter  under  the  general  term  of 
root  crops. 

343.  Relationships. — Root  crops  belong  to  several  genera,  of 
which  the  following  are  most  widely  known:  (i)  Beta,  including 
garden  beets,  sugar  beets,  and  mangel-wurzels ;  (2)  Brassica, 
including  turnips,  rutabagas,  kohlrabi,  cabbages,  rape,  and  kale; 
(3)  DaucuSj  including  the  carrot,  and  (4)  Pastinaca,  which 
includes  the  parsnip.  The  carrot  and  the  parsnip  both  belong 
to  the  carrot  family  (Umbelliferae),  which  includes  celery, 
parsley,  and  caraway,  and  also  a  number  of  disagreeable  weeds, 
among  which  are  the  wild  forms  of  carrot  and  parsnip. 

275 


276 


THE    FORAGE   AND    FII5ER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


The  genus  Brassica  includes  in  addition  to  the  above-men- 
tioned plants  the  mustards,  as  well  as  many  potherbs,  and  be- 
longs to  the  mustard  family  (Cnici ferae),  which  includes  the 
garden  radish,  horse  radish,  water  cress,  and  garden  cress.  The 
beet  belongs  to  the  goose  foot  family  (Chenopodiaceae) ,  which 
includes  spinach  and  that  widely  distributed  weed,  lamb's 
quarter  or  pigweed  (Chenopodmm  album  L.). 

344.  Types  of  the  Beet. — The  beet  (Beta  vulgaris  L.)  is 
cultivated  in  four  general  forms,  in  each  of  which  there  are 

many  varieties — namely,  ( i ) 
chard,  its  leaves  used  as  pot- 
herb or  for  ornamental  pur- 
poses; (2)  garden  beet,  gen- 
erally with  red-colored  flesh, 
and  used  for  cooking;  (3) 
sugar  beet,  generally  with 
white-colored  flesh,  and  culti- 
vated for  its  sugar  and  for 
stock  feeding;  and  (4)  man- 
gel-wurzels,  generally  with 
parti-colored  flesh,  supposed 
to  be  a  cross  between  the 
former  two,  and  used  exten- 
sively for  stock  feeding. 

345.    Description      of      the 
Beet. — The  beet,  while  usually 

Danish  Improved  half-sugar  mangel-wurzel.  -  .  u        ■  j>     •' 

An  excellent  type  ;     pulls    up    clean,    has    deterred     tO     aS     a        roOt,        IS 

shallow  dimples,  good  shoulders,  single   really    a    modified    Stem    and 

neck  and  crown,  single  tap  root,  and  good         .  ,11  -^     1 

fQjj^gg^  primary    root    closely    united. 

The  neck,  which  supports  the 
leaves,  and  the  upper  portion  or  shoulder  of  the  stem  constitute 
the  crown  which,  in  the  case  of  sugar  beets,  is  removed  prepara- 
tory to  the  manufacture  of  sugar.  The  neck  should  be  short  and 
the  flesh  firm,  with  no  tendency  to  sponginess  or  hollowness.   The 


ROOT  c:rops  2^"] 

neck  contains  less  sugar  and  more  undesirable  compounds,  such 
as  nitrates,  than  the  rest  of  the  "root."  The  neck  should  be 
single,  since  when  multiple  the  extra  small  shoots  grow  largely 
at  the  expense  of  the  food  already  stored.  The  shoulders  should 
not  be  too  flat  or  concave  on  top,  as  this  is  apt  to  cause  decay. 

The  primary  root  appears  as  a  continuation  of  the  stem 
(hypocotyl),  and  should  terminate  in  a  single  small  tap  root. 
Secondary  prongs  or  forks  increase  the  cost  of  harvesting,  hold 
the  soil  and  indicate  coarseness.  There  are  two  depressions 
opposite  each  other  running  lengthwise,  but  slightly  tangential 
to  the  root,  known  as  dimples,  from  which  the  lateral  roots 
arise.  These  should  be  shallow  and  as  nearly  vertical  as  may 
be.  The  lateral  roots  should  be  fine  and  abundant,  and  their 
origin  confined  to  the  dimples,  since  when  they  spring  promis- 
cuously from  the  surface  the  root  is  more  difficult  to  dig,  and 
more  soil  clings  to  it.  The  fibrous  root  system  is  extensive.  In 
some  cases  drains  four  feet  below  the  surface  have  been 
blocked  by  them. 

A  transverse  section  of  a  beet  shows  a  series  of  (five  to 
seven)  concentric  rings  of  firm  tissue  alternating  with  rings  of 
softer  tissue.  The  firm  or  vascular  tissue  is  said  to  be  higher  in 
dry  matter  and  richer  in  sugar  than  the  intermediate  tissue,  and 
the  claim  is  made  that  the  richest  roots  are  those  in  which 
these  vascular  rings  are  packed  closely  together.  There  appears 
to  be  no  correlation  between  color  of  flesh  and  sugar  contents  or 
the  feeding  value,  but  roots  of  white  color  are  preferred  for 
sugar  beets  on  account  of  other  colors  interfering  with  the 
manufacturing  processes. 

346.  Comparison  Between  Sugar  Beets  and  Mangel-wurzels. — 
Sugar  beets  differ  from  mangels  in  color,  form,  size,  depth  and 
vigor  of  growth,  in  ease  of  harvesting,  in  total  yield  of  fresh 
roots,  in  the  percentage  and  the  ratio  of  sugar  to  dry  matter, 
and  in  keeping  qualities.  The  skin  of  the  sugar  beet  is  white 
and  the  typical  form  is  shown  in  this  paragraph.     In  mangel- 


278 


THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


wurzel*  the  color  of  the  skin  varies  with  the  variety  and  may 
be  white,  pink,  red,  orange,  golden,  purple,  or  black.  The  form 
is   equally   variable,   but   the   commercial   varieties   are   usually 

divided  into  five  groups: 
long,  half -long,  ovoid, 
tankard,  and  globe.  Typ- 
ical sugar  beets  weigh 
from  I  to  1.5  pounds,  while 
m.angel-wurzels  should 
weigh  from  3  to  4  pounds 
apiece. 

Sugar  beets  grow  al- 
most entirely  below  the 
surface  of  the  soil,  while 
with  globe-mangel  wurzels 
frequently  two-thirds  to 
three- fourths  of  the  root 
is  above  ground.  With 
the  long  shaped  varieties 
one-half  to  two-thirds  of 
the  root  may  be  below  the 
surface.  For  the  reason 
just  stated,  mangel-wur- 
zels  are  more  easily  lifted 
than  sugar  beets,  yet 
more  weight  must  be 
handled  because  of  the  lower  percentage  of  dry  matter  in  the 
case  of  the  former.  It  is  believed  that  mangel-wurzels  grow 
rather  more  vigorously  than  sugar  beets  and  thus  get  ahead  of 
the  weeds  more  quickly 

The  roots  of  the  typical  improved  sugar  beets  contain  about 
20  per  cent,  of  dry  matter,  about  four-fifths  of  which  is  sugar. 
Good  varieties  of  mangel-wurzels  contain  about  12  per  cent,  of 
dry   matter,   about  one-half   of   which   is   sugar.     The    feeding 


Kleinwanzlebener  sugar  beet 


ROOT    CROPS 


279 


value  of  beets  is  not  believed  to  be  influenced  materially  b>  the 
ratio  of  sugar  to  dry  matter,  but  is  dependent  primarily  upon 
the  content  of  dry  sub- 
stance. It  is  believed  that 
loss  through  external  de- 
cay and  the  oxidation  of 
sugar  is  greater  in  sugar 
beets  than  in  mangel- 
wurzels. 

There  are  several  vari- 
eties of  mangel-wurzels 
known  as  half -sugar  man- 
gel-wurzels, produced  by 
crossing  mangel-wurzels 
and  sugar  beets.  While 
some  of  these  varieties 
have  good  form  and  yield 
well,  the  composition  does 
not  differ  materially  from 
ordinary  varieties  of 
mangel-wurzels,  due 
doubtless  to  the  fact  that 
external  characters  have 
been  the  basis  of  selection. 

347.  Varieties.— At  the  Cor- 
nell Station,  the  long  red  vari- 
eties were  more  productive  than 
the  yellow  globe  and  golden 
tankard  varieties,  but  were  some- 
what   more    difficult    to    harvest. 

Of  the  long  red  varieties,  Norbiton  Giant,  Sutton's  Long  Red,  Carton's  Long 
Red,  and  Chirk  Castle  yielded  equally  well.  Among  the  half-sugar  mangel- 
wurzels,  Vilmorin's  Half-sugar  Rosy,  and  Half-sugar  White  were  found  desir- 
able. Among  sugar-beets  of  value  for  stock  feeding,  Danish  Improved  and 
Lane's  Improved  Imperial  yielded  well.  Kleinwanzlebener  was  expensive  to 
harvest,  and   retained  too  large   quantities   of  dirt. 

"The  two  varieties  (of  sugar  beets)   which  have  been  most  widely  grown  in 
this    country    are    the    Vilmorin    Improved,    and    the    Kleinwanzlebener.      The 


Sutton's  long  red  mangel-wurzel 


28o 


THE    FORAGE   AND    FIliER    CKUi'S    IN    AMERICA 


certainty  that  the  seed  has  been  grown  according  to  the  most  scientific  methods 
is  of  greater  importance  to  the  beet  grower  than  the  variety.  The  beet  has 
reached  such  a  high  state  of  perfection  as  to  make  the  least  degree  of  laxity 
in  its  treatment  exceedingly  dangerous  to  its  qualities."  ^ 

"The  essentials  of  a  good  variety  are  large  yields,  high  sugar  content, 
purity  of  the  juice  and  keeping  quality  of  the  beets.  The  beet  should  have  an 
even  texture,   smooth  outline,  and  symmetrical   shape.     The  typical   sugar  beet 


Golden  tankard  mangel-wurzel  Carter's  Windsor  yellow  globe  mangel-wurzel 

should  weigh  rather  more  than  a  pound,  contain  14  per  cent,  of  sugar,  and 
80  per  cent,  of  the  total  solids  in  the  juice  should  be  cane  sugar.  There  is 
a  tendency  for  the  total  yield  of  the  beet  to  decrease  with  the  increase  in  the 
per  cent,  of  sugar.     Extremes  in  either  direction  should  be  avoided."  ^ 

348.  Adaptation. — The  beet  is  adapted  to  a  cool  climate  and 
a  moist  soil.  Sunshine  is  especially  desirable  where  high 
sugar  content  is  desired,  hence  the  comparatively  cool  sub-humid 
sections  of  the  western  states  have  been  found  especially 
adapted  to  the  growth  of  sugar  beets.     Here  the  soil  moisture 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  No.  52,  pp.  8,  9. 

2  Morrow  and  Hunt:   Soils  and  Crops  of  the  Farm,   p.  265. 


ROOT    CROPS  281 

is  obtained  chiefly  by  irrigation  or  by  supplies  of  underground 
water  which  furnish  the  necessary  moisture  conditions  in  the 
soil.  Often  under  the  latter  conditions  excellent  crops  of  sugar 
beets  are  raised,  where  the  rainfall  is  slight,  without  any  irriga- 
tion. Mangel-wurzels  are  especially  adapted  to  the  higher  eleva- 
tions of  the  North  Atlantic  states  where  the  shortness  of  the 
season  and  the  danger  from  frost  make  the  growing  of  maize 
somewhat  uncertain.  They  can  withstand  drought  better  than 
other  root  crops.  Beets  may  be  grown  on  almost  any  type  of 
soil  ranging  from  quite  sandy  to  heavy  loams,  provided  they  are 
fertile  and  sufficiently  deep. 

349.  Irrigation. — It  is  generally  customary  to  supply  the 
water  by  the  row  method  rather  than  by  flooding.  The  amount 
of  water  and  the  time  and  number  of  applications  vary  greatly 
with  soil  and  climate.  The  important  consideration  is  to  supply 
sufficient  water  to  keep  up  a  uniform  and  continuous  growth 
until  the  close  of  the  season,  but  not  to  start  a  second  growth 
late  in  the  season,  because  such  growth  will  reduce  the  percent- 
age of  sugar.  Under  some  conditions,  one  application  made 
just  after  the  seed  is  planted  may  bring  good  results,  while 
under  other  conditions  of  climate  or  soil,  several  applications 
at  intervals  throughout  the  growing  season  are  more  advisable. 
At  the  Utah  Station,  with  a  rainfall  of  seven  inches  from 
April  to  September  inclusive,  about  20  inches  of  water  at  five 
applications  gave  larger  yields  of  beets  and  higher  percentage  of 
sugar  than  less  or  more  water.^ 

350.  Rotation. — Beets  may  occupy  the  same  place  in  the 
rotation  as  that  occupied  by  other  inter-tilled  crops,  such  as  maize 
or  potatoes;  that  is,  they  may  follow  sod  or  another  inter-tilled 
crop  which  has  been  manured  heavily,  such  as  potatoes,  cabbage, 
or  maize.  Oats  is  the  best  grain  to  succeed  them,  since  the  roots 
cannot  be  removed  in  time  for  fall  grain.     The  land  should  be 

lUtah  Sta.  Bui.  No.  80   (1902),  p.   177. 


282  THE    FORAGE   AND   FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

fall  plowed,  care  being  taken  to  spread  the  beet  tops  uniformly; 
otherwise  an  uneven  oat  crop  will  result,  since  the  tops  are  a 
valuable  manure.  On  account  of  danger  of  leaf-spot,  at  least 
four  years  should  elapse  between  two  crops  of  beets  on  the  same 
soil. 

351.  Fungous  Diseases. — Beets  are  more  or  less  affected  by  a  number  of 
fungous  diseases,  the  most  important  of  which  in  America  are  (1)  leaf-sp;)! 
(Cercospora  beticola  Sacc),  (2)  root-rot  (Rhizoctonia  betae  Kuhn.),  and  (3) 
beet  scab  {Oospora  scabies  Thaxter).  Of  these  the  leaf-spot  is  the  most 
widely  distributed,  and  probably  for  that  reason  does  the  most  damage.  This 
is  a  mycelium  fungus  whose  fruiting  spores  occur  in  small  brown  spots, 
turning  ash-gray  with  reddish-purple  margins  on  the  surface  of  the  leaves. 
Spraying  early  with  Bordeaux  mixture  is  recommended,  but  a  rotation  of  crops 
is  a  successful  prevention.  Late  planting  reduces  the  attacks  from  leaf-spot, 
but  late  planting  also  reduces  the  yield,  and  is  therefore  not  to  be  recommended.' 

Beet  root-rot  affects  the  root  while  growing  in  the  field,  causing  the  infested 
part  to  turn  brown.  Under  conditions  favorable  to  the  disease  all  parts 
become  affected  and  gradually  disappear.  This  fungus  is  also  believed  to  be 
the  cause  of  damping  off  in  young  plants  of  several  species,  such  as  cotton 
and  lettuce.  It  is  said  not  to  thrive  in  an  alkaline  soil,  hence  liming 
is  recommended. 

Beet  sclib  causes  the  surface  of  the  beet  to  become  more  or  less  covered 
with  a  corky  excrescence.  This  disease  is  the  same  as  that  occurring  on 
potatoes,  hence  beets  should  never  follow  on  land  that  had  grown  scabby 
potatoes,   or  scabby  beets. 

352.  Insects. — The  beet  being  closely  related  to  some  of  the  commonest 
weeds,  there  are  about  150  species  of  insects  which  feed  upon  it;  although 
only  about  40  species  can  be  considered  of  economic  importance.  Ordinarily 
none  of  these  is  especially  harmful,  beets  being  usually  less  injured  by  insect 
attacks  than  maize,  wheat,  cabbage,  turnip,  or  potato.  "The  principal  in- 
jurious groups  are  the  leaf -miners,  the  web-worms,  the  cutworms,  the  woolly 
bears,  and  several  other  leaf-eating  caterpillars,  the  wireworms,  the  while 
grubs,  the  flea-beetles,  the  blister-beetles,  the  plant  bugs,  the  leaf-hoppers,  the 
plant-lice,  and  grasshoppers."  ^  Spraying  with  suitable  insecticides,  and,  in 
other  cases,  hand-picking  are  practised,  but  the  usual  preventive  measures  of 
clean  culture  and  a  rotation  of  crops  are  the  most   effective  and  practical. 

353.  Preparation  of  the  Soil. — In  the  preparation  of  the  soil 
greater  care  is  necessary  than  for  cereals.  Usually  deep  fall  plow- 
ing is  advisable  with  cross-plowing  or  deep  disk  harrowing  in  the 

iNew  York  Cornell  Sta.  Bui.  No.  163   (1899). 
2  Illinois  Sta.  Bui.  No.  60   (1900),  p.  398. 


ROOT    CROPS  283 

spring.  The  seed-bed  must  be  made  fine,  which  usually  requires 
five  or  six  harrowings  with  disk  and  spike  tooth  harrows.  Stable 
manure  at  the  rate  of  ten  loads  per  acre  should  be  applied  pre- 
vious to  plowing  in  the  fall  and  200  pounds  of  acid  phosphate 
and  50  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  may  be  applied  in  the  spring 
previous  to  the  last  two  harrowings.  This  fertilizer  stimulates 
the  young  plants.  Where  beets  are  grown  for  purposes  of 
manufacture  it  is  considered  expedient  to  apply  the  fertilizer  to 
the  preceding  crop.  The  great  difficulty  in  the  culture  of  beets  is 
their  slow  growth  while  young,  allowing  weeds  to  get  a  start 
and  making  it  difficult  to  maintain  clean  culture.  For  this  rea- 
son it  is  advisable  to  give  the  plants  just  after  thinning  an  ap- 
plication of  50  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  to  which  50  pounds  of 
acid  phosphate  may  be  added  to  give  it  bulk  and  aid  in  distri- 
bution. Apply,  when  leaves  are  dry,  close  to  the  plants  and  fol- 
low with  cultivator. 

354.  Seeding. — What  is  sold  in  commerce  as  beet  seed  is 
the  fruit  called  the  capsule  or  "bolt,"  which  contains  from  one  to 
five,  usually  two  to  three,  seeds.  The  number  of  capsules  varies 
from  18,000  to  36,000  per  pound.  One  hundred  bolts  should  pro- 
duce from  150  to  175  plants.  The  Michigan  Station  found  no 
difference  in  the  vitality  of  sugar  beet  seed,  i,  2,  3,  and  4  years 
old.  A  good  stand  of  mangel-wurzel  plants  is  from  25  to  30 
thousand  per  acre,  of  sugar  beets  somewhat  more.  From  six 
to  eight  pounds  of  good  mangel-wurzel  seed  are  required  per 
acre.  Since  an  even  stand  is  one  of  the  most  important  con- 
siderations in  obtaining  a  maximum  yield,  it  is  common  in  the 
case  of  sugar  beets  to  sow  18  to  20  pounds  of  seed  per  acre, 
although  obviously  this  would  be  a  great  excess  in  case  all  the 
seeds  should  germinate. 

At  the  Cornell  University  farm  three-fourths  inch  was  found 
ample  depth  for  seed  and  one  and  a  half  inches  too  deep.  In 
dry  climates,  planting  one  and  a  half  inches  deep  will  probably 
be  found  advisable  in  order  to  insure  sufficient  moisture  for  ger- 


284  THE    ruRAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

mination.  Where  sugar  beets  are  raised  on  a  large  scale  a  drill 
sowing  four  rows  at  a  time  is  commonly  used.  An  ordinary 
grain  drill  may  be  used,  however.  By  closing  the  proper  outlets 
a  7x11  drill  will  make  rows  21,  28,  or  35  inches  apart  as  desired, 
The  Ontario  Agricultural  College  found  the  best  temperature 
for  germination  of  seed  to  be  80°  F.  Yet  experiments  have 
clearly  demonstrated  that  early  sowing  is  desirable,  generally 
earlier  rather  than  later  than  maize. 

355.  Distance  Apart  of  Rows. — The  distance  apart  of  the 
rows  is  largely  a  question  of  the  value  of  land  and  the  cost  of 
labor.  By  placing  the  rows  close  together  larger  yields  per  acre 
may  be  obtained;  but  by  placing  the  rows  wider  apart  larger 
yields  for  the  amount  of  labor  involved  will  be  secured, 
since  the  labor  is  related  to  the  number  and  length  of  rows 
to  be  planted,  thinned,  hoed,  and  cultivated.  It  is  customary 
to  plant  sugar  beets  in  rows  of  18  to  20  inches  apart  when  not 
irrigated,  while  where  irrigated  it  is  advised  to  plant  in  double 
rows  II  inches  apart  with  27  inches  between  them  for  conven- 
ience of  irrigation.  For  mangel-wurzels,  it  is  advised  to  make 
the  rows  28  to  35  inches  apart. 

356.  Thinning. — As  soon  as  the  plants  have  four  leaves,  with 
a  hoe  five  or  six  inches  wide,  chop  out  all  the  plants  in  the  row 
except  a  little  bunch  every  6  to  10  inches  as  required,  depending 
on  the  variety,  globes  and  tankards  requiring  rather  greater 
width  in  the  row  than  the  long  varieties  of  mangel-wurzels. 
The  bunch  of  plants  must  next  be  thinned  to  one  plant  in  a 
place;  otherwise  small  distorted  roots  will  result.  It  is,  also,  im- 
portant that  this  thinning  be  done  promptly  before  they  become 
"drawn,"  since  if  the  plants  are  checked  in  any  way  at  this  time, 
the  injury  will  be  permanent.  This  thinning  is  tedious  and  ex- 
pensive, and  has  led  to  attempts  to  crack  the  fruits  into  pieces 
having  one  seed  each.  The  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture is  now  breeding  sugar  beets  with  one  seed  in  a  capsule : 


ROOT    CROPS 


285 


thus  far  the  total  crops  have  averaged  26  per  cent,  of  "single- 
germ"  seed,  such  seed  producing  beets  yielding  from  16  to  17 
per  cent,  sugar.^ 

357.  Cultivation. — The  ground  should  be  harrowed  as  fre- 
quently as  necessary  after  seeding  to  keep  weeds  from  starting. 
Shallow  cultivation  should  begin  as  soon  as  rows  can  be  seen 


A  best  puller 


A  four-row  beet  cultivator  with  duck  feet 
and  weeding  knives 


and  continued  about  every  ten  days  until  tops  meeting  in  the 
row  prevent  further  inter-tillage. 

358.  Harvesting. —  ihe  cessation  of  growth  is  indicated  by 
the  withering  of  the  outer  leaves,  which  usually  occurs  about 
the  middle  of  October.  Beets  will  stand  some  frost,  but  should 
not  be  subjected  to  severe  freezing.  The  roots  should  be  lifted 
with  as  little  injury  as  possible. 

In  case  the  sugar  beets  are  to  be  used  for  making  sugar,  the 
crown  is  always  cut  off,  but  where  mangel-wurzels  or  sugar 
beets  are  stored  for  feeding  the  tops  should  be  twisted  off  by 
hand.  The  storage  should  be  cool,  dry  and  well  ventilated. 
Experiments  indicate  that  at  a  temperature  of  32°  F.  beets 
may  be  kept  for  weeks  in  perfect  condition.  A  root  cellar 
is  most  convenient,  but  if  necessary  they  may  be  pitted,  covering 
with  alternate  layers  of  straw  and  soil,  adding  layers  as  the  cold 

1  Report  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  (1906),  p.  42. 


286 


THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


weather  increases.  Storing  should  be  done  as  soon  as  possible, 
since  if  allowed  to  lie  long  on  the  ground  a  loss  in  sugar  content 
will  result  from  fermentation. 

359.  Yields. — The  possible  and  probable  yields  of  the  differ- 
ent classes  of  root  crops  are  indicated  by  the  results  obtained 
during  two  seasons  at  the  Cornell  Station.  The  following  table 
gives  dry  matter  in  pounds  per  acre  from  sowings  made  during 
May: 


Kind 

Minimum 

Average 

Maximum 

Mangel-wurzel    wurzels          .... 

824 

5,520     ■ 

10,660 

Half-sugar  mangel-wurzels 

5,960 

6,300 

10,200 

Sugar  beets 

6,840 

8,120 

9,000 

Rutabagas 

2,251 

3,920 

5,200 

Hybrid   turnips 

2,512 

4,060 

5,700 

Common  turnips 

800 

2,400 

3,960 

Kohlrabi 

3,920 

4,460 

5,000 

Cabbages 

3,160 

4,280 

7,783 

Carrots 

1,760 

3,500 

5,320 

Parsnips 

3,200 

On  the  same  type  of  soil  the  same  seasons  the  estimated  yield 
of  maize  grain  was  2,000  pounds  and  of  maize  silage  4,000 
pounds  of  dry  matter  per  acre.  Ten  to  fifteen  tons  of  sugar  beets 
and  20  to  30  tons  of  mangel-wurzels  may  be  considered  satis- 
factory yields.  The  average  yield  of  sugar  per  ton  of  beets  in 
the  United  States  in  1904  was  230  pounds.  Under  highly  im- 
proved conditions  16  tons  of  beets  per  acre,  yielding  250  pounds 
of  commercial  sugar  per  ton  or  4,000  pounds  of  sugar  per  acre, 
may  be  realized. 

360.  Feeding. — Mangel-wurzels  and  sugar  beets,  and  indeed 
root  crops  in  general,  have  a  high  feeding  value  for  the  amount 
of  dry  matter  contained.  This  is  due  to  their  succulence  and  high 
digestibility.  Extensive  Danish  experiments  have  shown  that 
the  dry  matter  in  mangel-wurzels  when  fed  in  large  quantities 
has  a  feeding  value  equal  pound   for  pound  to  a  mixture  of 


ROOT    CROPS  287 

cereal  grains  when  fed  in  such  a  way  as  to  eliminate  the  influ- 
ence of  succulence.  The  high  character  of  English  mutton  is 
due  to  root  crops,  turnips  being  largely  used.  The  value  of  root 
crops  to  the  American  farmer  is  not  as  a  food  to  take  the  place 
of  silage  and  other  roughage,  but  as  a  partial  substitute  for 
cereal  grains  and  other  concentrated  foods. 

It  is  not  considered  advisable  to  feed  mangel-wurzels  to  live 
stock  until  after  Christmas,  as  they  appear  to  contain  some  sub- 
stances, perhaps  nitrates  and  oxalates,  which  are  laxative,  but 
which  characteristic  disappears  after  roots  are  stored  for  some 
time.  Before  feeding,  mangel-wurzels  or  sugar  beets  should  be 
pulped,  sliced,  or  cut  into  finger  pieces.  This  is  frequently  done 
twelve  hours  before  required  and  mixed  with  low  grade  hay  or 
straw,  thereby  adding  to  the  palatability  of  the  latter. 

361.  Production  of  Seed. — The  beet  being  a  biennial,  it  is 
necessary,  in  order  to  secure  seed,  to  select  individual  plants  of 
the  desired  characters  and  quality,  and  store  these  roots  in 
sand  in  a  pit  or  cellar.  The  following  spring  they  are  planted  in 
the  field  and  soon  throw  up  their  seed  stalk  and  produce  seed. 
A  single  mangel-wurzel  may  produce  0.4  pound  of  seed, 
hence  to  secure  eight  pounds,  or  the  maximum  quantity 
required  to  sow  an  acre,  20  roots  would  be  necessary.  No 
method  of  selecting  plants  of  mangel-wurzels  has  been  practised 
other  than  that  of  external  appearance,  although  selection  of 
roots  having  a  known  percentage  of  dry  matter  could  be  done 
as  easily  as  selection  of  ''mothers"  in  the  case  of  the  sugar  beet. 

The  sugar  beet  is  one  of  the  most  striking  examples  of  im- 
provement of  composition  by  selection  that  has  yet  been  accom- 
plished. The  selection  of  mothers  for  high  content  of  sugar 
was  first  attempted  in  1850  by  specific  gravity  of  the  roots, 
assuming  that  roots  of  high  specific  gravity  would  have  the 
highest  percentage  of  sugar.  This  was  followed  by  selection 
on  the  basis  of  the  specific  gravity  of  the  juice.  In  1867  the 
polariscope  was  suggested  and  has  been  used  ever  since.     Prior 


288  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

to  1850  the  selection  of  sugar  beets  was  by  external  characters 
alone,  but  there  seems  to  be  good  evidence  to  believe  that  some 
progress  was  made  in  increasing  the  sugar  content.  In  France, 
from  1805  to  1815,  the  sugar  extracted  was  reported  to  be  3  per 
cent.,  in  1829  5  per  cent.,  while  in  1904  it  was  11. 5  per  cent. 
The  content  of  sugar  in  the  juice  of  sugar  beets  is  reported  to 
have  been  about  11  per  cent,  in  i860,  about  12  per  cent,  in  1870-2, 
and  about  14  per  cent,  in  1885,  and  16  to  17  per  cent,  in  1904, 
with  individual  roots  as  high  as  25  per  cent. 

Having  selected  a  number  of  roots  possessing  the  desired 
external  characters,  a  core  of  the  root  is  extracted  by  means 
of  a  "trier"  inserted  in  a  slanting  direction  from  the  shoulder. 
The  juice  of  the  core  is  then  analyzed  and  the  roots  which  show 
the  desired  percentage  of  sugar  are  retained  for  producing  seed. 
Immediately  after  coring,  the  hole  may  be  filled  with  charcoal, 
clay,  or  cotton  batting  dipped  in  formalin  to  prevent  infection  of 
diseases.  Different  varieties  or  strains  should  be  planted  sepa- 
rately, as  the  beet  probably  cross-pollinates  rather  freely. 

362.  History. — Manjgrafif,  of  Austria,  in  1747  demonstrated 
that  beets  contain  crystallizable  sugar,  and  Archard,  of  Berlin, 
in  1797  announced  that  sugar  could  be  extracted  from  them.  The 
first  factory  was  erected  in  Silesia  in  1805;  but  it  was  not  until 
1825  in  France,  and  1835  in  Germany  that  the  manufacture  of  ^/\ 
sugar  from  beets  became  an  established  industry.  Fifty  years'^  ^ 
later  three  million  tons  of  sugar  were  manufactured  annually 
in  Europe.  In  recent  years  about  one-half  the  sugar  produced 
in  the  world  comes  from  beets.  The  principal  beet  sugar  pro- 
ducing countries  are  Germany,  Austria-Hungary,  France,  and 
Russia. 

More  or  less  continuous  attempts  in  the  production  of  sugar 
from  beets  have  been  made  in  various  sections  of  the  coun- 
try since  1863.  The  total  annual  production  is  about  200,000 
tons,  chiefly  in  California,  Colorado,  Michigan,  and  Utah. 
In  this  country  the  economical  production  of  the  beets  is  the 


ROOT   CROPS 


289 


chief  difficulty  to 
be  overcome.  The 
use  of  root  crops 
of  any  kind  as 
food  for  domestic 
animals  is  of  com- 
paratively recent 
origin.  Their  im- 
provement and  use 
for  this  purpose 
appears  to  have 
arisen  in  the 
Netherlands,  Germany 


Green  top  Scotch  yellow  hybrid-turnip 
lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Expt.  Sta.  Record  XI,  p.  6. 


Danish  Ballhead  cabbage 

and  other  low  lying  regions  of  northern 
Europe  in  the  fifteenth 
and  sixteenth  centuries. 
Although  the  common 
garden  beet  had  been 
tried  for  stock  feeding 
earlier,  the  improved 
mangel-wurzel  was  in- 
troduced both  into  Eng- 
land and  America  about 
the  middle  of  the  eight- 
eenth century. 

II.      TURNIPS,  RUTABAGAS, 
KOHLRABI    AND    CABBAGES 

363.  Types.— A  multi- 
tude of  cultivated  forms 
is  supposed  to  have 
arisen  from  Brassica 
oleracea  L.,  a  plant  na- 
tive to  the  coasts  of 
western  and  southern 
Europe.^      These    forms 


290 


THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


have  been  classified  into  several  rather  well  defined  groups.  Thus 
the  cabbage  tribe  (B.  oleracca  L.)  includes  the  ordinary  cab- 
bage, cauliflower,  broccoli,  kohlrabi,  kale,  and  brussel  sprouts; 
while  in  separate  species  are  placed  rape  {B.  napus  L.),  ruta- 
baga or  Swedish  turnip  {B.  campestris  L.),  and  common  turnip 
{B.  rapa  L.).  Turnips  and  rutabagas,  like  beets,  consist  of  a 
thickened  stem  and  root.  In  the  kohlrabi  the  stem  forms  a 
turnip-like  enlargement  above  ground,  while  in  the  cabbage  the 
nourishment  is  accumulated  in  the  leaves. 


364.  Description. — Turnips  and  rutabagas  vary  in  form  sim- 
ilar to  mangel-wurzels,  but  in  less  marked 
manner.  They  also  vary  in  color  of  ex- 
posed pa\t  of  "root,"  which  may  be  white, 
yellow,  green,  bronze,  purple  or  red,  and 
"greystones,"  the  latter  term  being  applied 
when  the  upper  part  is  mottled  with  trans- 
verse green  and  purple  streaks. 

The  flesh  is  generally  either  white  or 
yellow.  White-fleshed  varieties  are  gen- 
erally regarded  as  of  lower  feeding  value, 
softer  and  more  liable  to  be  injured  by 
the  frost  than  the  yellow-fleshed  varieties, 
but  they  make  a  more  rapid  growth.  The 
neck  should  be  small,  the  crown  single 
and  the  shoulders  convex.  The  root  sys- 
tem of  turnips  is  mainly  near  the  surface. 

365.  Comparison  of  Turnips  and  Ruta- 
bagas.— Turnips  grow  more  rapidly,  but  the  rutabagas  give 
higher  yields  of  dry  matter  and  have  better  keeping  qualities. 
In  a  rather  unsuccessful  attempt  to  combine  the  keeping  qual- 
ities of  the  rutabaga  with  the  more  rapid  growth  of  the  turnip, 
numerous  crosses  have  been  made  to  which  has  been  given  the 
name  of  hybrid  turnips.  These  may  have  the  character  of  either 
parent  blended  in  a  number  of  ways. 


Maule's  Improved  Purple- 
top  rutabaga 


ROOT   CROPS 


291 


The  turnip  and  the  rutabaga  may  be  distinguished  by  the  fol 
lowing  characteristics : 


Turnip 

Rutabaga 

First   foliage  leaves 

. 

rough 

rough 

Color  of  leaves     . 

grass-green 

bluish-green  or  covered 
with  a  bluish-white 
bloom 

Later    leaves    produced 

covered       with       rough, 

smooth 

during  the  first  year 

harsh  hairs 

Neck      . 

. 

absent 

present 

Position  of  leaves 

, 

like     a     rosette     in     the 

on   the   neck,    which   usu- 

center    of    the    upper 

ally  shows  well  defined 

surface  of  the  "root." 

leaf  scars 

Period   of  growth 

usually  60  to  90  days 

usually  90  to   180  days 

Flowers 

small,   usually   yellow 

larger,  buflf  yellow  to 
pale  orange 

"Roots" 

. 

usually    smooth    on    the 

usually  rough  on  the  sur- 

surface    and    in     out- 

face   and    less    perfect 

line 

in  form  and  outline 

Flesh     . 

. 

soft,     usually     white     to 

firmer,    white,    yellow    or 

yellow,      more      often 

orange,       more       often 

white 

yellow 

Keeping       quality 

of 

generally     poor,     should 

generally     good,     can     be 

"roots" 

• 

be   consumed  early  in 
the  season 

kept  until  spring 

Dry   matter   . 

. 

5  to  10  per  cent. 

7  to  12  per  cent. 

Average       weight 

of 

"roots" 

. 

3  to   12  ounces 

16  to  50  ounces 

Size   of   seed 

, 

small,   2   to   3   lb.   usually 

larger    and    darker,    4    to 

sown  per  acre 

5  lb.  usually  sown  per 
acre 

366.  Varieties. — Although  the  use  for  forage  of  headless  cabbage  or  kale 
is  increasing  in  Great  Britain,  it  is  seldom  used  in  America.  Among  common 
or  head  cabbage,  Surehead  and  Autumn  King  have  given  satisfactory  yields 
for  forage.  Holborn  Elephant,  and  Kangaroo  rutabagas.  Yellow  Aberdeen 
and  Pioneer  hybrid  turnips,  and  Mammoth  and  Improved  Green  Globe  turnips 
are  standard  varieties  for  stock  feeding. 

367.  Adaptation. — ^Turnips  and  rutabagas  require  a  cool, 
damp,  rather  dull  climate.  They  will  not  withstand  drought  as 
well  as  mangel-wurzels,  and  sunshine  is  not  so  important  as 


292  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

with  the  sugar  beets.  They  generally  require,  especially  common 
turnips,  rather  sandier  soils  than  beets.  Stiff  clays  are  objec- 
tionable on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  producing  a  fine  seed-bed, 
while  light  sandy  and  gravelly  soils  are  undesirable  because  of 
the  lack  of  surface  moisture. 

368.  Cultural  Methods. — The  preparation  of  the  soil  and  the 
cultivation,  harvesting,  and  storing  of  the  crops  are  similar  to 
mangel-wurzels.  If  anything,  a  finer  seed-bed  is  required,  but 
the  more  rapid  growth  and  the  single  seed  make  cultivation  and 
thinning  easier.  These  crops  should  never  be  grown  continu- 
ously upon  the  same  ground  and  should  never  succeed  one 
another.  The  famous  Norfolk  four-course  rotation  which  helped 
to  revolutionize  the  agriculture  of  England  in  the  seventeenth 
century  consisted  of  turnips;  grain,  usually  barley;  "seeds,"  a 
mixture  of  clover  and  grasses;  grain,  usually  wheat,  each  one 
year.  In  the  United  States,  rutabagas  may  occupy  the  same 
place  in  the  rotation  as  suggested  for  mangel-wurzels. 

369.  Seeding. — Common  turnip  seed  may  vary  from  200,- 
000  to  260,000;  rutabagas  from  160,000  to  190,000;  kohlrabi 
from  115,000  to  130,000;  and  cabbage  from  80,000  to  140,000 
seeds  per  pound.  The  germinating  power  should  not  be  less 
than  90  per  cent.,  although  it  frequently  is  in  commercial  seed. 

The  number  of  plants  per  acre  should  be  for  cabbage  7,000  to 
10,000;  for  rutabagas  and  kohlrabi  20,000  to  30,000;  for  common 
turnips  somewhat  more.  Four  pounds  of  rutabaga  and  hybrid 
turnip  seed  and  three  pounds  of  common  turnip  seed  are  usually 
sown  when  in  rows  27  to  36  inches  apart.  Seeds  should  be  sown 
at  a  depth  of  one-half  to  three-fourths  inch.  Small  hand  garden 
drills  are  available  for  this  purpose.  Turnips,  kohlrabi,  and  ruta- 
bagas must  be  thinned  as  directed  for  beets. 

Cabbage  may  first  be  planted  in  flats  in  the  greenhouse  or 
cold-frame  and  transplanted  to  the  field  by  hand  or  by  means 
of  the  cabbage  planter;  or  a  few  seeds  may  be  dropped  in  the 
field  every   18  to  24  inches  apart  in  the  rows  and  the  plants 


ROOT   CROPS 


293 


thinned — when  three  or  four  leaves  have  developed — to  one  in 
a  place.  No  material  difference  in  yield  appears  to  result  from 
these  two  methods,  so  that  the  method  employed  will  depend  on 
the  convenience  and  expense.  The  distance 
apart  in  the  row  will  depend  on  the  purpose 
for  which  the  cabbages  are  grown.  Where 
they  are  sold  for  ordinary  culinary  pur- 
poses a  larger  number  of  small  cabbages 
are  desired,  while  for  forage  purposes  or 
for  sauerkraut  a  smaller  number  of  large 
cabbages  is  best.  Early  seeding  is  essential 
to  high  yields,  earlier  even  than  for  man- 
gel-wurzels,  although  common  turnips  may 
be  sown  as  a  catch  crop  as  late  as  July. 

370.  Enemies. — All  plants  of  the  mustard 
family  are  subject  to  the  attacks  of  the 
club-root  or  finger-and-toe  disease  (Plas- 
modiophora  brassicae  Wor.)  which  causes 
the  root  to  take  on  abnormal  shapes  and 
may  seriously  reduce  the  yield ;  and  by  carter's  Purpie-top  Mam- 
black  rot   (Pseudomonas  campestris  (Pam-     moth    turnip,   showing 

,._  r^.,vT-,,  ,  1  1       the  variation  in  size  of 

mel)  Erw.  Smith).   Both  are  best  combated     early  sown  above  and 
by  a  rotation  of  crops.    Lining  is  also  con-     late  sown  below. 
sidered  beneficial. 


Black  rot  is  a  bacterial  disease.  The  disease  usually  makes  its  appearance 
on  the  outer  leaves  of  the  cabbage,  near  the  margin,  entering  by  way  of  the 
large  marginal  water  pores,  but  infection  may  also  occur  through  the  roots 
or  at  the  base  of  the  leaf  close  to  the  stem.  The  disease  spreads  through  the 
entire  plant  by  means  of  the  veins.  The  leaves,  being  deprived  of  water, 
become  dry,  turn  yellow,  and  perish.  A  diseased  leaf  shows  the  blackened 
veins,  or  a  cross-section  of  a  diseased  leaf  or  stem  discloses  black  spots  instead 
of  the  faint  yellowish  spots  of  a  healthy  plant.  So  far  as  known,  the  disease 
spreads  by  contact,  or  by  inoculation  of  the  leaves  by  leaf-eating  insects,  or 
of  the  soil  with  germs  which  are  believed  to  pass  the  winter  in  the  soil,  or 
which  may  be  incorporated  in  manure  from  stock  fed  on  diseased  plants.  It 
is  also  believed  to  be  propagated  by  means  of  inoculated  cabbage  seed  whicn 
may   occur   on   the   market.     In   this   case   the   precaution    is   recommended   to 


294  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

disinfect  seed  by  soaking  for  15  minutes  in  a  0.001  corrosive  sublimate  solu- 
tion, or  in  formalin,  one  pound  to  30  gallons,  and  dry  before  sowing.  The 
disease  not  being  thoroughly  understood,  no  satisfactory  method  of  controlling 
the  disease  in  the  field  has  been   found.^ 

The  larva  of  the  wavy  striped  flea  beetle  (Phyllotreta  vittata  Fab.)  fre- 
quently attacks  the  roots  of  the  plants,  destroying  many  of  them.  The  most 
practical  preventive  is  early  seeding.  Sowing  thickly  and  thinning,  if  necessary, 
may  bring  good  results. 

The  green  cabbage  worm  (Pontia  rapae  Sch.)  is  a  serious  pest.  It  is 
important  to  kill  the  first  spring  brood,  which  becomes  mature  in  two  or  three 
weeks.  If  practicable,  hand  picking  early  in  the  morning  for  the  first  two 
or  three  weeks  of  the  seedling  will  prove  beneficial.  Spraying  the  young 
plants  with  an  arsenious  solution  and  the  old  plants  with  pyrethrum  or  hel- 
lebore is  recommended  for  this  pest,  and  for  the  cabbage  looper  (Autographa 
brassicae  Riley).  The  harlequin  cabbage  bug  (Murganiia  histrionica  Hahn.) 
is  a  serious  pest  in  the  southern  states.  Once  it  gets  a  hold  it  is  liable  to 
remain.  While  mustard  and  radish  plants  are  recommended  to  be  sown  for 
traps,  when  the  bugs  may  be  destroyed  by  spraying  with  kerosene,  this  practise 
more  frequently  increases  the  numbers  and  the  only  eflfective  means  of  com- 
bating so  far  found  is  hand  picking.  The  cabbage  maggot  (Pegomya  brassicae 
Bouche),  and  the  cabbage  plant  louse  (Aphis  brassicae  L.)  sometimes  do  con-" 
siderable  injury.  Spraying  with  whale  oil  soap  solution  has  been  found  an 
effective  remedy  for  the  latter. 

371.  Yields. — The  yield  of  dry  matter  or  fresh  substance  is 
not  so  large  in  rutabagas  as  in  mangels,  and  in  common  turnips 
it  is  even  less.  (359)  Five  to  fifteen  tons  of  common  tur- 
nips and  15  to  20  tons  of  rutabagas  and  kohlrabi  may  be  con- 
sidered fair  yields.  Under  favorable  conditions  over  40  tons  of 
cabbage  of  stock  feeding  purposes  may  be  obtained,  20  to  30  tons 
being  frequent.  Cabbages  usually  contain  6  to  7,  common  tur- 
nips 7  to  9,  rutabagas  8  to  10,  and  kohlrabi  9  to  11  per  cent,  of 
dry  matter. 

372.  Value. — The  common  turnip  is  valued  as  a  catch  crop, 
and  may  be  used  for  feeding  on  the  ground  early  in  the  sea- 
son. For  the  farmer  who  wishes  to  raise  "roots"  to  supplement 
the  grain  ration  in  Canada  and  the  cooler  and  moister  portions 
of  the  United  States,  where  maize  is  a  rather  uncertain  crop, 
cabbage  may  be  grown  for  feeding  cattle  and  sheep  while  on 

iNew  York  State  Sta.  Bui.  No.  232   (1903);  251    (1904). 


ROOT  CRors  295 

pasture  during  September  and  October,  It  is  not  advisable  to 
store  cabbage  for  feeding  purposes.  Rutabagas  may  be  grown 
and  stored  for  feeding  during  November  and  December,  while 
mangel-wurzels  may  be  grown  for  later  feeding.  Rutabagas 
are  desirable  to  feed  throughout  the  winter  to  brood  sows  and 
other  pigs.  Carrots  are  especially  desirable  for  horses.  Lazenby 
reports  that,  when  fed  to 
horses,  one  bushel  of  oats  and 
one  bushel  of  carrots  together 
were  equal  in  feeding  value  to 
two  bushels  of  oats. 

It  is  claimed  that  as  com- 
pared with  rutabagas,  kohlrabi 
withstands  drought  better,  can 
be  grown  on  heavier  soils,  and 
in  a  climate  too  warm  for  the 
best  development  of  rutaba- 
gas; it  withstands  frost  better 
and  is  not  so  subject  to  club 
root.  Little  is  known  of  its 
feeding  value.  The  seed,  on 
account  of  the  small  demand, 
is  high  priced  and  apt  to  be  of 
poor  germinating  power. 

373.  Production.— The  cul- 
tivation of  turnips  as  food  for 

stock  was  introduced  into  England  from  the  continent  about 
1650  and  caused  great  changes  and  improvements  in  British 
agriculture,  including  live  stock  husbandry.  They  have  never 
been  extensively  grown  in  the  United  States.  In  Canada  turnips 
are  still  the  leading  root  crop  grown  for  stock  feeding. 

III.     RAPE 

374.  Description  and  Varieties. — Rape   (Brassica  napus  L.) 
has  much  the  same  habit  of  growth  as  kale  or  headless  cabbage, 


Thorburn's  large  white  Vienna  kohlrabi 


296 


THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


to  which  it  is  closely  related.  Under  cultivation  it  grows  from 
1.5  to  4  feet  high,  has  large,  variously  divided  smooth  leaves 
borne  on  stems;  flowers  nearly  0.5  inch  in  diameter,  yellow; 
seeds  resembling  those  of  cabbage  and  turnip  but  larger. 

There  are  two  types  of  rape :  ( i )  annual  or  summer  rape, 
sometimes  known  as  bird  seed  rape,  and  (2)  biennial  or  so- 
called  winter  rape. 
Summer  rape  is  grown 
extensively  in  Europe 
for  seed,  which  yields 
33  per  cent,  of  ex- 
pressed oil  used  for  lu- 
bricating and  lighting, 
and  rape  seed  cake 
highly  valued  for  stock 
feeding  and  fertilizer. 
It  is  winter  rape  that 
is  used  for  forage  in 
America.  The  most 
widely  cultivated  vari- 
ety of  this  type  is  the 
Dwarf  Essex.  Seed  of 
winter  rape  can  be 
grown  only  where  the 
plants  will  survive  the  winter.  This  occurs  on  the  Pacific  coast, 
where  a  yield  of  1,000  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  is  said  not  to  be 
unusual.*  Ordinarily,  however,  seed  is  secured  from  Europe. 
The  necessity  of  annually  purchasing  seed  tends  to  prevent  its 
use,  although  one  of  the  strong  points  in  favor  of  the  growing 
of  rape  is  the  cheapness  and  small  quantity  of  seed  required: 
3  to  5  pounds  per  acre  are  sufficient. 

375.   Adaptation  and  Cultivation. — Rape  has  a  climatic  and 
soil    adaptation    similar    to    cabbage,    turnips,    and    rutabagas, 

lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  No.  164,  p.   10. 


The  rape  plant 
(After  Hitchcock) 


ROOT   CROPS  297 

although  it  is  less  easily  injured  by  fall  frosts.  It  is  reputed  to 
be  able  to  get  its  food  supply  from  relatively  insoluble  forms  of 
commercial  and  other  fertilizers,  hence  to  grow  well  on  new 
lands  or  those  containing  large  quantities  of  organic  matter, 
and  on  land  fertilized  with  coarse  manure  or  rock  phosphate. 
(C.  A.  406) 

It  germinates  and  grows  rather  rapidly,  hence  weeds  usually 
cause  little  trouble.  In  fact,  it  is  recommended  as  a  weed  de- 
stroyer. 

"An  excellent  treatment  for  a  foul  field  is  to  plow  thoroughly  in  late 
summer  or  early  autumn  and  seed  to  rye  or  some  other  forage  crop  to  be 
pastured  off  during  the  fall,  winter,  or  early  spring.  When  the  crop  has  been 
pastured  sufficiently,  and  before  the  weeds  have  produced  seed,  plow  again, 
plant  rape  in  drills  and  give  thorough  cultivation.  There  are  few  weeds  that 
will  survive  such  treatment,  and  the  land  will  have  given  profitable  returns 
in  forage  in  the  meantime."  ^ 

Rape  may  be  sown  in  drills  preferably  28  to  35  inches  apart, 
and  given  inter-cultural  tillage,  or  may  be  sown  broadcast  or 
drilled  with  grain  drill  as  for  cereals  at  any  time  from  May  to 
August  inclusive  in  Canada  and  the  northern  United  States. 
In  general,  drilling  will  be  best  for  early  seeding,  while  broad- 
casting will  be  sufficient  for  later  seeding.  It  is  ready  to  use 
in  eight  to  ten  weeks  after  seeding.  In  the  southern  states  it 
may  be  fall  sown  for  winter  pasture. 

It  may  be  sown  after  early  maturing  crops  are  removed,  in 
maize  at  the  last  cultivation,  or  in  the  spring  with  oats. 
(C.  A.  406)  Since  it  is  usually  grown  for  summer  and  fall 
pasture,  the  location  of  the  field  will  generally  be  more  im- 
portant than  the  place  of  the  crop  in  the  rotation. 

376.  Value. — "Among  all  forage  crops  possible  and  profita- 
ble of  cultivation  in  Canada  none  seems  worthier  of  a  more  ex- 
tensive use  than  rape.  It  is  simple  of  culture ;  it  makes  a  strong, 
rapid  growth;  it  adapts  itself  readily  to  different  soils  and  to 
various  climatic  conditions;  it  responds  vigorously  to  fertilizer 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.   164,  p.   13. 


298 


THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


and  to  good  cultivation;  and,  most  important  of  all  its  good 
qualities,  it  is  palatable,  wholesome  and  nutritious  green  food 
for  all  kinds  of  live  stock  on  the  average  Canadian  farm."  ^ 

It  is  most  highly  prized  for  growing  pigs  and  fattening  sheep. 
While  successfully  used  for  soiling,  it  is  used  principally  for 
pasturing,  never  being  cured  for  dry  forage.  In  composition 
and  feeding  value  it  is  similar  to  clover  and  alfalfa  pasture, 
and  is  less  likely  to  occupy  an  important  place  where  these 
plants  produce  abundant  summer  and  fall  pasturage.  Rape  is 
apt  to  cause  bloating  in  cattle  and  sheep  under  conditions  simi- 
lar to  those  mentioned  for  clover  and  alfalfa.     (167) 

IV.     CARROT 

377.      Carrot.  — 

The  carrot  (Dau- 
cus  car  Ota  L.)  is 
characterized  by 
its  finely  divided 
leaves  and  by  the 
umbel  which  bears 
the  seeds  being 
concave  and  dense, 
resembling  a  bird's 
nest.  A  section  of 
the  "root"  shows 
an  outer  layer  and 
an  inner  cone,  usu- 
ally of  different 
colors  and  shades. 
The  outer  layer  is 
considered  to  have 
the  higher  feeding  value.  The  varieties  of  the  carrot  may 
be  readily  classified  according  to  the  color  both  of  the 
skin  and  of  the  flesh,  as  red,  orange,  yellow,  or  white.     Some 

1  Central  Experiment  Farm,  Ottawa,   Canada.   Bui.   No.  42    (1903),  p.  3. 


Lobberich's  Agricultural  carrot.     Plant  in  bloom  on  right 

is  annual,  rough  and  covered  with  knobs.    Plant  on  left 

is  biennial  and  better  in  quality 


ROOT   CROPS  299 

varieties  taper  from  the  crown  to  the  tap  root,  while  others 
are  cylindrical  for  at  least  two-thirds  their  length  and  then 
taper  to  the  tap  root.  In  other  varieties  the  carrot  ends  abruptly 
and  the  tap  root  arises  from  a  comparatively  flat  surface.  The 
so-called  stump-root  varieties  are  considered  desirable  for 
shallow  soils. 

378.  Adaptation. — Carrots  have  a  wider  climatic  adaptation 
than  mangel- wurzels  and  rutabagas,  but  prefer  a  deeper  sandy 
loam.  They  may  be  successfully  grown  on  less  fertile  soils 
than  the  former.  Stable  manure,  unless  well  rotted,  is  best 
applied  to  the  previous  crop,  because  of  the  necessity  for  a  fine 
seed-bed  and  as  few  weeds  as  may  be.  Carrots  are  not  much 
affected  by  fungous  diseases  or  insect  enemies. 

379.  Seeding. — The  commercial  seed  is  a  fruit.  Since  the 
spines  of  the  fruit  cause  the  seeds  to  cling  together,  they  are 
sometimes  removed,  thus  enabling  the  seed  drill  to  place  the 
seed  more  uniformly.  There  are  410,000  to  460,000  seeds  to 
the  pound.  The  percentage  of  germination  is  apt  to  be  low, 
but  should  not  be  below  80  per  cent.  It  is  desirable  to  have 
plants  about  three  inches  apart  in  rows  about  30  inches  wide, 
or  from  50,000  to  60,000  plants  per  acre.  It  is  customary  to 
sow  about  six  pounds  of  seed  per  acre,  but  if  seed  is  good  a 
less  quantity  should  be  sufficient. 

380.  Cultural  Methods. — The  cultural  methods  are  similar  to 
those  for  mangel-wurzels  and  rutabagas.  The  germination  and 
early  growth  are  even  slower  than  in  the  case  of  sugar  beets 
Keeping  the  land  clean  and  thinning  the  carrots  are  the  chief 
difficulties  in  raising  them. 

381.  Yield. — With  a  good  stand,  yields  of  10  to  20  tons  per 
acre  may  be  obtained,  and  yields  of  25  to  30  tons  are  occasionally 
reported.  (359)  The  percentage  of  dry  matter  (11  to  13) 
is  higher  than  for  other  forms  of  roots,  except  sugar  beets. 
The  tops  of  carrots  appear  to  have  a  higher  feeding  value  than 


300 


THE    i'URAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


the   leaves   of   mangel-wurzels   or   rutabagas, 
tons  of  tops  per  acre  are  reported. 


Yields   of   four 


V.     MINOR   ROOT   CROPS 

382.  Parsnips  (Pastinaca  sativa  L.)  require  similar  conditions,  for  their 
best  development,  to  carrots.  The  cultural  methods  of  carrots  and  parsnips 
are  substantially  alike,  and  similar  difficulties  in  raising  them  are  encountered. 
Parsnips  are  well  liked  and  sometimes  recommended  for  dairy  cattle.  The 
low  yield,  however,  appears  to  preclude  their  general  use.  Unlike  most  other 
roots,  they  are  improved  rather  than  injured  by  freezing,  and  may  be  left  in 
the  ground  until   spring. 

383.  Cassava  (Manihot  utilissima  Pohl.)  and  Sweet  Cassava  (M.  palmata 
var.   aipi   Mill.    Arg.). — "A    native   of   the    tropics,    but    recently    introduced    in 

Louisiana  and  Florida.  On 
fertile  soil  it  is  said  to  yield 
as  much  as  10  tons  of  roots 
per  acre,  and  the  roots  are 
worth  fully  as  much  as  pota- 
toes for  feeding.  The  plant  is 
propagated  by  planting  short 
cuttings  of  the  stems,  and  re- 
quires only  ordinary  cultiva- 
tion. As  the  roots  decay 
quickly  after  being  taken  out 
of  the  ground,  they  should  be 
dug  only  as  wanted  for  use. 

384.  Chinese  Yam  (Dios- 
corea  divaricata  Blanco;  D. 
batatas  Decne). — "The  roots 
are  quite  large,  club-shaped, 
often  reaching  three  feet  in 
length  with  a  diameter  of  three 
inches  at  the  lower  end.  They 
are  starchy  and  mucilaginous, 
and  make  a  food  fully  as  rich 
as  sweet  potatoes,  but  their 
peculiar  shape  makes  them 
hard  to  dig.  The  plant  is 
propagated  by  means  of  small  tubers,  which  are  produced  in  immense  numbers 
in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  and  on  a  rich  loamy  soil  the  yield  of  these  tubers 
is  often  50  or  more  bushels  per  acre.  These  tubers  remain  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground  uninjured  during  ordinary  winters,  and  so  are  a  valuable  winter 
food  for  hogs. 

385.  Chufa  (Cy penis  csculcntus  L.). — "A  perennial  sedge  that  produces 
^   large    yield    of    small    tubers   which    are   valuable    food    for    hogs..      It    grows 


Hollow  crown  parsnip 


ROOT    CROPS  301 

best  on  a  well  fertilized,  sandy  soil  where  it  makes  a  yield  of  from  75  to  100 
bushels  per  acre.  The  tubers  are  planted  in  early  spring,  12  to  15  inches 
apart  in  rows  3  to  4  feet  apart,  and  the  only  cultivation  needed  is  to  keep 
down  grass  and  weeds.  The  tubers  mature  in  October  and  November,  and 
are  easily  rooted  out  by  the  hogs.     This  plant  is  of  little  value  on  heavy  soils."  ^ 

386.  Jerusalhm  Artichoke  (Helianthus  ttiberosus  L.)  is  a  coarse, 'strong- 
growing  species  of  sunflower,  producing  tubers  which  resemble  potatoes  in 
size  and  shape.*  The  plant  is  almost  certainly  of  American  origin.  It  was 
cultivated  both  in  Europe  and  America  at  least  two  hundred  years  ago.  The 
plant  is  hardy,  easily  cultivated,  and  produces  large  yields  of  tubers  well  liked 
by  hogs. 

The  tubers  may  be  planted  in  the  same  way  as  potatoes,  in  rows  three  to 
four  feet  apart  as  early  in  the  spring  as  convenient.  The  land  should  be 
kept  cultivated  until  the  stalks  have  made  sufficient  growth  to  shade  the  ground. 
The  food  value  per  pound  of  tubers  is  low,  and  often  it  is  not  profitable  to 
dig  and  store  the  tubers.  The  stalks  may  be  cut  with  a  mowing-machine,  and 
the  tubers  plowed  to  the  surface,  when  pigs  may  be  turned  in  the  field  to  eat 
them.     Hogs  will  also  dig  them  from  the  ground. 

The  tubers  are  not  injured  by  frost.  Usually  enough  of  the  tubers  are 
left  in  the  ground  to  continue  an  abundant  growth  the  next  season.  The 
surface  may  be  leveled  in  the  spring  and,  after  the  crop  has  started  to  grow, 
by  use  of  plow  or  cultivator  the  plants,  except  those  in  rows,  may  be  killed. 
In  some  cases  difficulty  has  been  experienced  in  getting  rid  of  the  crop,  but 
ordinarily  this  can  be  done  with  little  trouble.  There  are  several  varieties, 
differing  in  size,  color,  and  shape  of  the  tubers,  but  little  attention  has  been 
paid  to  selection  or  improvement  of  the  plant. 

Practicums 

387.  Study  of  Characters  of  "Roots." — Supply  students  with  types  and 
varieties  as  indicated  below,  and  have  them  designate  the  characters  which 
are  applicable. 

1.    Beets- 
Type:  Mangel-wurzel;  half-sugar;  sugar. 

Shape:  Long;  intermediate  long;  tankard;  globe:  smooth;  forked;  rough: 
uniform  in  width;   tapering. 

Dimples:  Present;  absent:  well  supplied  with  fine  roots;  not  well  supplied 
with  fine  roots. 

Color  of  skin:   Red;   orange;   yellow;   white. 

Color  of  flesh:  White;  white-red;  yellow. 
•    2.    Carrots — 

Type:   Taper-pointed;   stump-rooted. 

Shape:  Long;  half -long;   short:  cylindrical;   not  cylindrical. 

Core:   Large;  medium;  small;   absent:   reddish;   yellowish;  whitish. 

Color  of  skin:   Orange;  yellow;   red;   white. 

lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  No.  102,  p.  46. 


302 


THE   FORAGE   AND   FIBER   CROPS   IN    AMERICA 


3.  Turnips — 

Type:   Common;  hybrid;   cowhorn;   rutabaga. 

Shape:  Flat;  round;  globular;  tankard;  long:  smooth;  forked;  rough:  uni- 
form in  width;   tapering. 

Top:   Flat;  round;  purple;  bronze;  green-yellow;   white. 

Color  of  skin:   White;   yellowish.     Color  of  flesh:   White;   yellowish. 

4.  General — 

Neck:   Long;  medium;   short;  absent. 
Shoulders:    Square;   round:   prominent;   slight. 
Crown:  Single;  multiple. 

Length :  Total ;  above  ground ;  below  ground ; 

Percentage  of  root  below  surface 

Greatest  circumference 

Distance  plants  may  be  asunder  in  rows 

Disease:    Present;   absent.     Give  name. 
Average  weight   of  four  specimens 

388.  Increase  of  Dry  Matter  in  Mangel-wurzels  by  Selection. — Require 
students  to  select  three  mothers  from  a  pile  of  not  less  than  25  roots,  giving 
attention  to  the   following  external  characters: 

Size,  not  less  than  two  pounds;  crown,  single;  neck,  small;  shoulders,  con- 
vex; dimples,  shallow  and  well  supplied  with  fine  roots,  which  readily  break 
off  when  root  is  harvested;   tap  root,   single. 

Core  each  with  a  trier.  Extract  a  core  with  a  cheese  trier  from  each  root 
in  a  slanting  direction  from  the  shoulder.  Place  each  core  in  a  small  porcelain 
dish  of  known  weight  and  weigh  at  once.  Dry  in  a  hot  water  oven  until 
constant  weight  is  obtained.  Determine  weight  of  residue,  and  calculate  per- 
centage of  dry  matter.  Plug  the  hole  in  the  root  with  cotton  batting  which 
has  been  dipped  in  a  solution  of  formalin.  If  up  to  a  given  standard — say  12 
per  cent,  dry  matter — bury  roots  in  sand  in  a  dry,  cool,  well-ventilated  cellar. 

389.  Determination  of  Specific  Gravity  of  Root  and  Juice. — Require 
students  to  sample  a  number  of  roots  of  which  the  following  may  be  suggested: 


Root 


Mangel    . 
Mangel    . 
Mangel   . 
Sugar  beet 
Sugar  beet 
Cowhorn  turnip 
Common  turnip 
Rutabaga 
Carrot 


Weight 
of  sample 


Weight 
of  sample 
and  wire 
in  water 


Weight 
of  wire 


Weight  I 
of  sample' 
in  water 


Sp.  gr. 
of  root 


Sp.  gr. 
of  juice 


ROOT   CROPS  303 

Method  of  Determination. — With  the  cheese  trier  take  out  a  piece 
from  about  the  middle  of  the  "mother  root."  Weigh  it  to  milligrams  and 
record.  I'ill  beaker  with  water,  hang  the  sample  by  the  wire  to  the  beam  of 
the  balance  in  the  water:  make  sure  it  does  not  touch  the  side  of  the  beaker. 
Weigh  and  record.  Weigh  the  wire  and  record,  and  deduct  from  the  weight 
of  the  root  and  wire.  The  result  is  the  weight  of  th«  root  in  water,  and  is 
to  be  deducted  from  the  weight  of  the  sample  in  air  to  furnish  a  divisor. 
The  weight  of  the  sample  in  air  is  the  dividend,  and  the  quotient  obtained 
is  the  specific  gravity.  The  specific  gravity  of  juice  is  obtained  by  extracting 
the  juice  and   reading  by  means  of  the  hydrometer. 

390.  Collateral  Reading. — Thomas  Shaw:  Forage  Crops  other  than 
Grasses.  New  York:  Orange  Judd  Co.,   1900. 

C.  L.  Allen:  Cabbages,  Cauliflower  and  Allied  Vegetables.  New  York: 
Orange  Judd  Co.,   1902. 

L.  S.  Ware:  Beet  Sugar  Manufacture  and  Refining,  Vol.  I,  pp.  16-35.  New 
York:  John  Wiley  &  Sons,   1905. 

Guilford  L.  Spencer:  A  Handbook  for  Chemists  of  Beet-sugar  Houses  and 
Seed-culture  Farms,  pp.  190-6.     New  York:  John  Wiley  &  Sons,   1904. 

Charles  F.  Saylor:  Progress  of  the  Beet-sugar  Industry  in  the  United  States 
in  1901.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Report  No.  72,  pp.  61-74 

Geo.  B.  Harrison:  The  Beet-sugar  Industry  in  Kansas.  Kansas  State  Bd. 
Agr.  Report    (Quarter  ending  September),    1906. 

H.  W.  Wiley:  The  Sugar  Beet.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  No. 
52,  1899. 

C.  O.  Townsend:  Relation  of  Sugar  Beets  to  General  Farming.  In  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook   1903,  pp.  399-410. 

Thomas  A.  Williams:  Rape  as  a  Forage  Plant.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Div. 
Agros.  Circ.  No.   12,   1899. 

A.  S.  Hitchcock:  Rape  as  a  Forage  Crop.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr,,  Farmers'  Bui. 
No  .164,   1903. 

J.  H.  Grisdale:  The  Rape  Plant.  Dept.  Agr.,  Central  Expt.  Farm,  Ottawa, 
Can.,  Bui.  No.  42,   1903. 

Samuel  Fraser:  Cabbages  for  Stock-feeding.  New  York  Cornell  Sta.  Bui. 
No.  242,  1906. 

Samuel  Fraser,  John  W.  Gilmore,  and  Charles  F.  Clark:  Roots  for  Stock- 
feeding.     New  York  Cornell  Sta.  Bui.  No.  243,  1907. 


XVI 


FIBER  CROPS 

CLASSIFICATION    AND    PRODUCTION 

391.  Materials  for  Fibers. — There  are  two  sources  of  fibers: 
animal  fibers,  of  which  there  are  two  kinds,  wool  and  silk,  and 
vegetable  fibers. 

The  cells  of  plants  are  divided  into  two  kinds :  ( i )  cells 
with  soft  walls,  having  but  little  structural  or  tensile  strength, 
easily  subject  to  decay  and  usually  more  or  less  globular  in 
shape,  known  under  the  general  term  of  parenchyma  tissue. 
Young  plants  and  the  young  parts  of  plants  consist  largely  of 
these  soft  cells  of  parenchyma  tissue.  It  is  for  this  reason  that 
the  young  parts  of  plants  collapse  or  wilt  when  water  is  with- 
drawn from  the  cells.  (2)  Cells  with  thickened  and  tough 
walls.  Such  cells  are  known  as  wood  cells  and  constitute  the 
bulk  of  what  is  known  as  wood.  The  wood  cells  are  of  two 
kinds:  (a)  ducts  or  vessels  consisting  of  cells  placed  end*  to 
end  with  the  partitions  removed,  thus  constituting  continuous 
passage  through  the  plant  and  (b)  wood  cells  or  fibers,  which 
are  elongated  more  or  less  spindle-shaped  cells  with  pointed 
ends.  These  cells  overlap  each  other,  and  usually  occur  in  a 
continuous  bundle  of  cells,  known  as  fibrovascular  bundles.  In 
the  softer  parts  of  all  higher  plants  and  throughout  the  stems 
and  leaves  of  endogenous  or  monocotyledonous  plants,  these 
fibrovascular  bundles  occur  at  more  or  less  irregular  intervals, 
while  in  exogenous  or  dicotyledonous  plants,  the  hard  parts 
consist  almost  exclusively  of  wood  ducts  and  fibrovascular  bun- 
dles. 


FIBER   CROPS  305 

While  all  the  higher  plants,  therefore,  contain  woody  fibers  or 
cells,  and  in  that  sense  all  are  fiber  plants,  only  those  fibers  are 
useful  for  textile  purposes  which  have  the  requisite  strength, 
length,  fineness,  flexibility,  and  elasticity.  In  addition  to  the 
fibrovascular  bundles  which  occur  in  the  stems,  leaves  and  bark 
of  plants,  there  are  certain  simple  cells  which  grow  on  the 
surface  of  plants,  especially  on  the  seeds,  which  are  adapted 
to  textile  uses,  and  which,  to  distinguish  them  from  fibrovas- 
cular bundles,  are  called  surface  fibers. 

392.  Classification  According  to  Use. — In  the  widest  sense, 
there  is  no  limit  to  the  character  of  the  fiber  or  to  the  plants  to 
be  used  for  fiber.  The  following  classification  has  been  pro- 
posed, as  covering  all  the  possible  economic  uses  of  the  vegeta- 
ble  fibers :  ^ 

A.  Spinning  fibers —  ♦ 

1.  Fabric  fibers. 

2.  Netting  fibers. 

3.  Cordage  fibers. 

B.  Tie  materials — 

C.  Natural  textures — 

1.  Tree  basts  with  tough  interlacing  fibers. 

2.  The  ribbon  layer  basts. 

3.  Interlacing  structural  fibers  or  sheaths. 

D.  Brush  fibers — 

1.  Brushes  manufactured  from  prepared  fiber. 

2.  Brooms  or  whisks. 

3.  \'ery  coarse  brushes   or  brooms. 

E.  Plaiting  and  rough  weaving  fibers — 

1.  Used  in  articles  of  attire,  as  hats,  sandals,  etc. 

2.  Mats  and  mattings,  also  thatch  material. 

3.  Basketry. 

4.  Miscellaneous  manufactures,  as  willow  ware. 

F.  Various  forms  of  filling — 

1.  Stuffing  or  upholstery. 

2.  Calking. 

3.  Stiffening,  as  in  the  manufacture  of  "staff." 

4.  Packing. 

^U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Fiber  Investigations,  Rpt.  9  (1897):  A  descriptive 
catalogue  of  useful  plants  of  the  world,  including  the  structural  and  economic 
classification   of   plants,   p.   31. 


306  THE   FORAGE   AND   FIBER   CROPS   IN   AMERICA 

G.    Paper  material — 

1.  Textile  papers. 

2.  Bast  papers. 

3.  Palm  papers. 

4.  Bamboo   and   grass   papers. 

5.  Wood   pulp   and   cellulose. 

393.  Classification  According  to  Source. — This  book  will 
deal  only  with  those  plants  which  produce  spinning  fibers,  al- 
though they  may  be  used  for  other  purposes.  Spinning  or  tex- 
tile fibers  are  used  either  for  producing  fabrics  or  for  making 
cord  ape  ranging  from  the  finest  threads  to  the  largest  ropes. 
A  somewhat  immediate  use  may  be  recognized  in  various  forms 
of  netting  ranging  from  laces  to  hammocks  and  fish  nets. 

Spinning  or  textile  fibers  may  be  classified  according  to  their 
source  into  bast  fibers,  structural  fibers,  and  surface  fibers,  or 
into  soft_  fibers,  hard  or  leaf  fibers,  and  cotton  fiber.  Bast 
fibers  come  from  the  inner  bark  of  certain  exogenous  plants. 
They  are  especially  valuable  because  of  their  fineness,  strength, 
and  flexibility  for  the  production  of  high  grade  fabrics  and 
their  use  is  made  economically  possible  when  the  tissue  of  the 
stems  and  bark  is  easily  disintegrated  and  removed. 

Structural  fibers  are  fibrovascular  bundles  occurring  in  the 
leaves  or  leaf  stems  of  certain  endogenous  plants.  In  some 
cases  the  fibrovascular  bundles  occur  in  isolated  groups  through- 
out the  tissue,  as  in  sisal  hemp,  while  in  other  cases  they  occur 
more  thickly  grouped  near  the  surface,  as  in  the  case  of  abaca 
or  manila  hemp.  These  fibers  are  frequently  of  great  length, 
but  usually  lack  the  flexibility  of  bast  fibers. 

394.  Classification  According  to  Spinning  Units. — Looked 
upon  as  spinning  units,  fibers  may  be  classified  into  two  kinds : 
(i)fibers  consisting  of  single  cells,  as  cotton,  or  at  most  two 
or  more  simple  cells  end  to  end;  (2)  fibers  made  up  of  bundles 
of  spindle-shaped  cells  overlapping  each  other  and  fastened  to 
gether  more  or  less  firmly  by  various  kinds  of  cementing  mate- 
rial.    In  the  case  of  cotton,  therefore,  the  length  of  the  fiber 


FIBER    CROPS 


307 


and  of  the  cell  is  the  same,  since  the  fiber  consists  of  a  single 
cell;  but  in  bast  and  structural  fibers  the  length  of  the  fiber  is 
many  times  the  length  of  the  single  cells,  since  each  fiber  is 
composed  of  many  cells.  Thus  according  to  Wiesner  the  raw- 
fiber  of  flax  varies  from  8  to  55  inches  in  length,  while  the 
length  of  the  individual  cells  composing  the  fibers  varies  from 
0.08  to  0.16  inch/ 

The  readiness  with  which  the  material  that  helps  to  hold  the 
individual  cells  together  may  be  removed,  as,  for  example,  when 
washed  with  soap,  afYects  the  wear  when  made  into  cloth,  and 
methods  have  been  devised  for  determining  the  readiness  with 
which  these  and  other  substances  may  be  removed  as  a  partial 
basis  for  judging  the  value  of  fibers.     (400) 

The  following  outline  classifies  the  most  important  fiber 
plants  of  America  into  the  three  groups  mentioned: 


Spinning 

or 

textile 

fibers 


''  T?ast  or  soft 

r  Flax 
1    Hemp 

Fibrovascular 

fibers 

structure 

- 

Structural   or 

f  Manila  hemp 
-{    Sisal   hemp 

hard  fibers 

L  Istle  or  Tampico  fiber 

Simple    cellular 
structure 

Surface  fibers 

^    Cotton 

395.  Identification  of  Fibers. — The  simplest  test  for  distin- 
guishing animal  from  vegetable  fibers  is  burning.  Vegetable 
fibers  when  thoroughly  burned  leave  a  white  powdery  ash, 
while  animal  fibers  leave  a  crisp  coal.  On  account  of  the  rel- 
atively large  percentage  of  nitrogen  in  animal  fibers  the  am- 
monia evolved  may  be  recognized  by  the  odor. 

Animal  fibers  which  consist  principally  of  nitrogenous  com- 


» Matthews:   Textile   Fibres,   p.   99. 


3o8  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER   CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

pounds  are  soluble  in  certain  acids  and  alkalis,  while  vegetable 
fibers,  composed  largely  of  carbohydrates  under  the  general 
term  of  cellulose,  are  insoluble  in  nearly  all  of  the  usual  solvents, 
although  readily  dissolved  in  a  solution  of  copper  oxide  in 
ammonia.  Silk  is  more  soluble  in  certain  solutions  than  wool, 
by  which  means  they  may  be  identified.  While  vegetable  fibers 
are  not  soluble  in  ordinary  acids  and  alkalis,  they  may  be  dis- 
integrated or  greatly  modified  by  solutions  which  will  not  injure 
wool.  Many  processes  of  freeing  wool  from  cotton  and  other 
vegetable  substances,  such  as  seeds  and  burs,  are  based  upon  the 
fact  that  weak  acids  and  alkalis  will  disintegrate  the  cellulose, 
after  which  the  fragments  may  be  shaken  out.  Many  manufac- 
turing processes,  such  as  giving  a  silky  luster  to  cotton,  are 
based  upon  the  action  of  chemicals  on  the  fibers. 

Woolen  fibers  can  be  recognized  under  the  microscope  by 
the  scales  which  point  toward  the  outer  end.  Many  of  them 
appear  not  unlike  a  series  of  baskets  placed  one  within  the 
other.  Silk  and  usually  vegetable  fibers  have  a  smooth  surface. 
The  cotton  fiber  is  very  much  twisted.  Different  vegetable 
fibers  vary  in  color  when  treated  with  certain  reagents.  The 
cells  also  vary  in  length,  thickness,  and  shape,  a  knowledge  of 
which  may  help  in  identifying  fibers.     (399) 

396.  Number  of  Fiber  Plants. — While  there  are  hundreds  of 
plants  that  might  be  used  for  fiber  plants,  and  while  there  are 
30  to  40  plants  which  enter  into  the  world's  supply,  and  20  to  30 
which  are  used  commercially  in  America,  the  mosi  im- 
portant of  these  from  the  standpoint  of  manufacture  are  cotton, 
flax,  jute,  hemp,  manila  hemp,  ramie,  sisal  hemp,  and  istle  or 
Tampico  fiber. 

397.  Production. — Of  cotton,  America  raises  a  great  excess 
for  export,  less  than  half  the  hemp  required  for  local  consump- 
tion and  practically  none  of  the  flax  fiber,  although  producing 
nearly    one-half    of    the    world's    supply    of    flax    seed,    about 


FIBER   CROPS  309 

equally  divided  between  North  and  South  America.  Manila 
hemp  comes  principally  from  the  Philippines,  and  sisal  hemp 
and  istle  from  Mexico,  while  jute  comes  from  India  and  China. 
All  other  vegetable  fiber  plants  are  secondary  in  importance  to 
cotton,  which  is  also  gaining  in  importance  compared  with  wool 
or  silk. 

Practicums 

398.  Identification  of  Fibers. — Give  each  student  one  gram  each  of  silk, 
wool,  cotton,  and  two  grams  of  a  piece  of  cloth  composed  of  silk,  wool,  and 
cotton,  all  having  been  soaked  in  ether  or  benzine  to  remove  possible  material 
which  may  prevent  action  of   reagents. 

Place  the  samples  of  silk,  wool,  and  cotton  in  small  beakers  and  add  10 
per  cent,  solution  of  caustic  soda  (NaOH).  The  cotton  remains  insoluble; 
the  silk  and  wool  are  dissolved.  To  the  alkali  solution  add  lead  acetate.  In 
the  case  of  the  silk  the  solution  does  not  blacken,'  but  in  the  case  of  the  wool 
it  does  on  account  of  the  formation  of  lead  sulphid.  Pick  apart  the  piece  of 
cloth  so  that  the  reagents  may  act  readily,  place  in  beaker  and  add  a  solu- 
tion of  basic  zinc  chlorid,  made  by  taking  a  solution  of  zinc  chlorid  of  1.70 
specific  gravity,  and  dissolving  it  in  an  excess  of  zinc  oxid.  Heat  for  five 
minutes  and  filter.  The  silk  having  been  dissolved  the  loss  is  the  silk  originally 
present.  Heat  the  residue  in  10  per  cent,  solution  of  caustic  soda,  and  filter. 
The  loss  represents  the  wool   originally  present;   the   residue  is  cotton.^ 

To  determine  the  amounts  quantitatively  it  will  be  necessary  to  determine 
the  percentage  of  moisture  present,  and  also  the  finishing  materials  and  col- 
oring matters  which  may  be  present.  These  may  be  removed  by  boiling  in 
a  1  per  cent,  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid,  then  in  a  1/20  per  cent,  solution 
of  sodium  carbonate,  and  finally  in  water. 

399.  Microscopic  Examination  of  Fibers. — Give  each  student  a  small 
sample  of  wool,  silk,  cotton,  flax,  and  manila  hemp,  and  also  a  piece  of  cloth 
composed  of  wool,  silk,  and  cotton.  Prepared  slides  showing  cross  sections 
and  longitudinal  view  of  fibers  are  also  desirable.  A  compound  microscope 
with  one-sixth  inch  objective  is  required,  and  a  camera  lucida  is  desirable, 
but  not  necessary.  Answers  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  illustrated  with 
sketches. 

Surface  of  fiber:   smooth;    scaly;   sketch. 

Frequency  of  twist  or  scales:  give  number  per  definite  length  or  area 

Luster  by  reflected  light:   high;   medium;  dull. 
Transmitted   light:   transparent;   translucent;   opaque. 
Ends  of  fiber:  forked;  pointed:   sharp;  blunt. 
Length  of  fiber : ;  breadth 

1  For  further  details,  see  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Fiber  Investigations  Rpt.  No. 
9    (1897),   p.   354;   also   Matthews:   Textile   Fibres,   p.   247. 


3IO  THE    FORAGE   AND   FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

Cross  section:  shape;   sketch. 

Identify  kinds  of  fiber  in  woven  cloth. 

400.  Value  of  Fibers  as  Determined  by  Action  of  Reagents. — For  this 
purpose,  use  samples  of  raw  cotton,  flax,  and  jute  fibers. 

1.  Resistance  to  bleaching:  Boil  a  weighed  portion,  say  two  grams,  in  a 
1  per  cent,  solution  of  caustic  soda  for  five  minutes.     Determine  loss  in  weight. 

2.  Resistance  to  laundering:  Boil  a  weighed  portion  in  a  1  per  cent,  solu- 
tion of  caustic  soda  for  one  hour.     Determine  loss  in  weight. 

3.  Percentage  of  cellulose:  Boil  a  weighed  portion  in  a  1  per  cent,  solu- 
tion of  caustic  soda  for  five  minutes,  wash  and  expose  to  an  atmosphere  of 
chlorine  gas  for  one  hour.  Wash  and  raise  slowly  to  boiling  point  in  basic 
sodium  sulphite,  and  boil  for  three  minutes.  Wash  and  boil  in  20  per  cent, 
solution  of  acetic  acid.     Washed  and  dried  residue  is  weight  of  cellulose. 

4.  To  determine  minimum  loss  in  weight  in  clear  raw  fiber  for  commercial 
use:  Boil  weighed  portion  of  raw  fiber  in  20  per  cent,  solution  of  acetic  acid 
for  one  minute.  Wash  with  alcohol  and  water,  and  determine  weight  of 
dried  residue. 

5.  To  note  changes  due  to  strong  alkali  and  acid:  Expose  a  small  sample 
to  a  33  per  cent,  cold  solution  of  caustic  potash  and  another  sample  to  equal 
volumes  of  cold  concentrated  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids  for  one  hour.  Note 
results.' 

401.  Collateral  Reading. — E.  A.  Posselt:  The  Structure  of  Fibers,  Yarns, 
and  Fabrics.  2  vols.,  pp.  13-15,  73-5,  189.  Philadelphia:  The  Author,  215? 
North  Twenty-first  i^treet,   1891. 

Julius  Zipser  (translated  by  Charlesi  Salter).  Textile  Raw  Material?  and 
their  Conversion  into  Yarns,  pp.  7-56.     London:  Scott.  Greenwood  &  Co.,  1901. 

C.  R.  Dodge:  The  Structural  and  Economic  Classificatiou  of  Fibers.  In 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Fiber  Investigations  Report  No.  9:  A  Descriptive  Catalogue 
of  the  World,  pp.   9-33. 

J.  Merritt  Matthews:  The  Textile  Fibres,  pp.  97-109.  New  York:  John 
Wiley  «'  Sons,   1904. 

1  For  further  details,  see  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Fiber  Investigations  Rpt.  No.  9 
(1897),   p.   19. 


XVII 


FIBER   CROPS 


COTTON 


Structure  and  Composition 

402.  Relationships. — Cotton  fiber  is  derived  from  several 
species  of  the  genus  Gossypium  belonging  to  the  mallow  family 
(Malvaceae).  Okra  (Hibiscus  esculentus  L.)  and  hollyhock 
(Althaea  rosea  Cav.)  belong  to  the  same  family.  The  species 
of  the  genus  Gossypium  may  be  herbaceous,  shrubby,  or  tree- 
like, and  are  all  probably  under  natural  conditions  perennial. 
A  characteristic  of  this  genus  is  the  black  spots  or  glands  on 
nearly  all  parts  of  the  plant.  The  principally  cultivated  species, 
upland  or  short  staple  cotton  (G.  hirsutum  L.),  is  herbaceous 
and  under  cultivation  an  annual.  The  discussion  which  follows 
relates  to  this  species  when  not  otherwise  stated. 

403.  Roots. — While  normally  the  cotton  plant  has  a  strong, 
branching  tap  root  penetrating  deeply,  the  root  system  is  sub- 
ject to  much  modification,  due  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the 
sub-soil.  In  some  instances  the  tap  root  may  be  absent.  At 
the  South  Carolina  Station  well-developed  tap  roots  were  traced 
in  sandy  soil  and  sub-soil  to  a  depth  of  two  to  three  feet  with- 
out coming  to  their  end.  On  heavy  clay  loam  only  one  plant 
out  of  twenty  had  a  well-developed  tap  root  over  nine  inches 
long.  In  either  kind  of  soil  the  lateral  roots  began  about  three 
inches  below  the  surface  of  the  soil  and  spread  out  in  all  direc- 
tions, most  of  them  being  within  nine  inches  of  the  surface, 
although  some  of  them  bent  down  abruptly,  penetrating  as  far 

311 


312  THE    FORAGE   AND   FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

as  three  feet  when  they  were  broken  off/  The  Alabama  Station 
reports  that  most  of  the  lateral  roots  originate  at  1.5  to  2 
inches  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  that  their  direc- 
tion is  such  that  deep  cultivation  would  break  a  large  proportion 
of  the  feeding  roots.^    The  bark  of  cotton  roots  is  reputed  to 

have  medicinal  properties  similar 
to  that  of  ergot.     (C.  A.  488) 

404.  Vegetative  Portion.— The 
cotton  plant  has  a  stout,  erect 
stem  one-fourth  to  one  inch  in 
diameter  and  one  to  five  feet  in 
height,  usually  two  to  three  feet, 
with  widely  spreading  branches. 
The  leaves  are  alternate  and  the 
branches  arise  in  the  axils  of  the 
leaves.  The  stem  is  circular  and 
distinctly  tapering.  The  stems 
and  branches  are  covered  with  a 
strong  greenish  or  reddish-brown 
bark,  containing  a  large  per  cent, 
of  bast  fibers.    The  pith  is  large ; 

American  upland  cotton.  A  short-Jointed,  ,   .  .  ,  .  1  m 

long  fruit  limb  plant.      An  extremely  the  WOOd  IS  SOft,  white  and  easily 

early  productive  plant  on  which  fruit-  decayS. 
ing  began  near  the  ground  at  the  first  ri-,,  ,•  ,     ,  i 

joints  on  the  main  stem.   There  are       The    distance    between    nodes 

only  four  primary  limbs  and  the  two  varies  with  climate,  Soil  and 
older  are  well  fruited.    Age  120  days,  ,   .         .  .  i-  .         .1 

height  5  feet,  bolls  70, 2  open,  in  lower  cultivation.  According  to  the 
half  circle  54  grown  bolls.  Leaves  re-  Texas  Station,  the  tendency  of 
"'°''^lFrom  photo  by  Bennett)  any    variety    when    planted    late 

is  to  produce  longer  joints,  and 
to  grow  taller  than  when  planted  early;  although  to  some  ex- 
tent this  characteristic  is  hereditary  in  different  individuals  of 
the  same  variety.^    A  variety  may  therefore  be  modified,  in  this 

1  South   Carolina    Sta.   Bui.   No.   7    (1892). 
3  Alabama   Sta.    Bui.   No.    107    (1897),   p.   218. 
» Texas  Sta.  Bui.  No.  11  (1905),  p.  20. 


FIBER    CROPS 


313 


particular,  by  selection.  The  plant  is  cone-shaped,  the  lower 
branches  about  six  inches  from  the  ground  being  longest  and 
next  above  gradually  growing  shorter  until  the  top  is  reached. 
The  leaves  are  large,  three  to  six  inches  long,  and  two  to 
five  inches  wide.  The  first  ones  are  entire  and  somewhat  heart- 
shaped;  subsequent  leaves  are  three  to  five,  rarely  seven,  lobed. 
The  midvein,  and  sometimes  the  lateral  veins,  bears  a  dark 
green  gland  near  its  base,  which  may  serve  as  a  variety  char- 
acteristic. All  vegetative  portions  of  upland  cotton  are  covered 
with  short  hairs. 

405.    Flowers. — The   flowers   are   regular,   having  five   small, 
united  sepals  and  five  large  petals.    The  flowers  open  at  sunrise 


Cotton  boll:  longitudinal  and  cross-sections  show  the  arrangement  of  seeds;  the  cross- 
section  on  the  right  shows  the  division  into  carpels 
(From  photo  by  Bennett) 


or  just  before.  In  upland  cotton  the  petals,  when  they  open, 
are  creamy-white,  and  in  sea  island,  bright  yellow.  During  the 
day  they  turn  pink  or  bright  red.  The  flowers  close  late  in  the 
day,  and  never  open  again;  hence,  if  cross-fertilization  takes 
place,  it  must  be  during  the  single  day  that  the  flower  is  open. 
The  corolla  falls,  but  the  calyx  is  persistent,  although  small 
and  inconspicuous.     The  young  capsule  or  boll,  surrounded  by 


314  THE   FORAGE   AND    FIBER   CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

the   three   bracts   or   involucre,    is   referred   to   by    farmers   as 
squares/ 

The  stamens  are  many,  monadelphous,  and  united  at  the  base 
with  the  petals;  the  anthers  are  one-celled.  The  styles  are 
united,  but  are  distinct  above;  thus  the  stigma  appears  three 
to  five  cleft,  depending  on  the  number  of  cells  or  carpels  into 
which  the  pistil  is  divided. 

406.  Bolls. — The  pistil  grows  into  a  large  fruit  or  capsule, 
usually  called  boll,  about  the  size  and  somewhat  the  shape  of 


Inside  structure  of  cotton  bur.    The  small,  thin  bur  opens  flat  and  twists  backward,  re- 
moving all  support  to  the  locks  which  fall  out.    The  big,  tough  bur  does  not  fold 
back  and  leave  the  locks  unsupported 
(From  photo  by  Bennett) 

a  hen's  egg,  except  that  it  is  distinctly  pointed  at  the  free  end. 
The  bolls  vary  from  1.5  to  2.5  inches  in  length,  and  from  1.25 
to  1.75  inches  in  width.  The  weight  of  the  content  of  100  bolls 
may  vary  with  the  variety  from  0.75  to  2  pounds,  or  the  number 
of  bolls  required  to  produce  one  pound  of  seed  cotton  may  vary 
from  50  to  130.  Varieties  requiring  from  50  to  65  bolls  to 
make  a  pound  of  cotton  may  be  considered  as  having  large 
bolls,  those  with  65  to  80  medium  bolls,  and  those  with  80  to 

1  The  terms,  form  and  squares  are  used  loosely  and  to  some  extent  inter- 
changeably. Frequently  these  words  are  used  to  apply  to  the  leafy  bracts 
and  the  enclosed  bud,  flower,  or  small  boll,  while  in  other  cases  the  word 
form  is  applied  to  the  bud  only;  that  is,  the  flower  before  it  opens. 


FIBER   CROPS 


315 


130  small  bolls.  The  large  bolls  are  desirable  for  picking,  and 
are  less  liable  when  open  to  drop  the  cotton.^  As  the  average 
of  twelve  years'  experiments,  larger  bolls  gave  the  larger  yields 
of  lint,  but  the  differences  are  not  marked.^ 

There  are  three  to  five,  under  cultivation  usually  four,  lobes 
or  cells.  These  cells  extend  from  the  base  of  the  boll  to  the 
apex.  When  ripe  the  cells  open  by  separating  along  their  central 
axis,  and  at  the  same  time  splitting  down  the  middle  of  the 
back,  thus  exposing  the  dark-colored  seeds  covered  with  the 


Outside  structure  of  cotton  bur.    The  small,  thin  bur  opens  flat  and  twists  backward,  re- 
moving all  support  to  the  locks  which  fall  out.    The  big,  tough  bur  does  not  fold 
back  and  leave  the  locks  unsupported 
(From  photo  by  Bennett) 

usually  pearly  white  hairs  or  fibers  for  which  the  plant  is 
primarily  chltivated.  This  method  of  opening  produces  three 
to  five,  usually  four,  more  or  less  three-sided  valves  collectively 
called  the  bur  with  characteristically  curved,  pointed  tips.  These 
valves  vary  in  shape.  The  small,  thin  burs  open  and  twist  back- 
ward, removing  the  support  to  the  locks  or  seed  cotton,  while 
the  large,  tough  burs  do  not  turn  back,  and  thus  the  locks 
are  supported.' 

The  number  of  bolls  per  plant  may  vary  with  variety,  soil, 
climate  and  cultural  conditions   from  few  or  none  to  seventy 

1  Texas  Sta.  Bnl.  No.  75  (1904),  p.  10. 
UJcorgia  Sta.  Bui.  No.  70  (1905),  p.  70. 
3  Texas  Sta.  Bui.  No.  75  (1904),  p.  12. 


3l6  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

or  more.  The  number  of  bolls  does  not  depend  alone  on  the 
size  of  the  plant,  but  on  the  number  of  branches  and  distance 
between  the  leaves  upon  the  branches,  usually  referred  to  as 
the  joints.  Since  the  branches  arise  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves 
upon  the  main  stem  and  the  flowers  arise  in  the  axils  of  the 
leaves  on  the  secondary  or  tertiary  branches  (branches  of 
branches),  short-jointed  plants  are,  in  proportion  to  size, 
most  productive. 

407.  Seed. — The  seeds  are  somewhat  angular,  about  three- 
eighths  inch  long  and  three-sixteenths  inch  wide,  oblong  oval, 
pointed  at  the  hilum  end  with  the  crown  or  free  end  enlarged 
and  rounded.  The  seed  coat  is  brown  or  black.  The  number 
of  the  seeds  of  upland  cotton  may  vary  from  about  3,000  to 
nearly  6,000  to  the  pound.  The  seed  of  sea  island  cotton  is 
slightly  smaller.  Seed  requiring  3,500  or  less  to  the  pound  (13 
grams  per  100)  may  be  considered  large;  those  requiring  4,500 
or  more  to  the  pound  (10  grams  per  100)  may  be  considered 
small.  The  legal  weight  per  bushel  of  upland  cotton  seed  varies 
from  28  to  33.3  pounds,  usually  30  or  32  pounds,  and  sea  island 
cotton  seed  from  42  to  46  pounds,  usually  44  pounds. 

The  seed  cotton  in  each  lobe  or  cell  is  called  a  "lock"  of  cot- 
ton. Each  lock  contains  six  to  ten  seeds,  hence  each  boll  may 
contain  from  20  or  less  to  50  or  more  seeds.  Individual  plants 
may  produce  from  500  to  2,000  seeds.  The  seeds  of  upland 
cotton  are  covered  with  a  dense  "fuzz,"  or  short  lint,  which 
gives  the  seeds  a  whitish,  brownish,  or  green  tint.  The  seeds 
of  sea  island  cotton  are  nearly  or  quite  naked,  thus  exposing 
the  black  seed  coat. 

The  seed  consists  chiefly  of  the  testa  or  hull  and  the  embryo 
or  meat.  In  addition  to  these,  but  forming  only  a  small  portion 
of  the  seed,  are  the  nucellus,  a  thin  skin  just  within  the  hull, 
and  just  within  this  the  endosperm,  a  layer  of  cells  containing 
aleurone  grains.  Throughout  the  nearly  white  embryo  are  the 
so-called    resin    cavities    containing    a    dark-colored    secretion, 


FIBER    CROPS 


Z^7 


which   are   plainly   visible   on   the   new   leaves    when   the   seed 
germinates. 

Seeds  as  they  come  from  the  gin  may  be  divided  into  three 
parts  as  follows:  short  lint  or  linter,  lo  per  cent;  hulls  40  per 
cent;  and  kernel  or  embryo  50  per  cent.  The  kernel  contains 
40  per  cent,  of  oil,  leaving  when  the  oil  is  entirely  removed, 


Cotton  seed. 


I.    Transverse  section.    II.    Longitudinal  section.  5  testa;  ^£  perisperm 
and  endosperm;  C  cotyledons;  /?  radicle 
(After  Winton) 


60  per  cent,  of  meat  or  30  per  cent,  of  the  whole  seed  as  it  comes 
from  the  gin. 

408.  Lint. — A  cotton  fiber  consists  of  one  elongated  cell, 
which  when  ripened  has  been  flattened  into  a  much  twisted 
ribbon-like  filament  which  has  been  likened  to  a  collapsed  and 
twisted  piece  of  rubber  hose.  Because  of  the  twist,  cotton  is  dis- 
tinguished from  other  textile  fibers.  The  number  of  twists  are 
said  to  vary  from  300  to  500  per  inch.  The  number  and  uni- 
formity of  the  twists  dependent  on  the  ripeness  of  the  fibers 
affect  materially  the  spinning  qualities  and  hence  the  commer- 
cial value  of  the  fiber.  In  every  lot  of  lint,  three  classes  of 
fibers  are  recognized:  ripe,  half  ripe,  and  unripe. 

The  longest  fibers  occur  at  the  top  of  the  seed;  the  shortest 
at  the  base.  The  lint  of  cotton  may  vary,  depending  on  the  type, 
from  one-half  inch  to  two  and  a  half  inches  in  length.     As 


3i8 


THE   FORAGE   AND    FIBER   CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


grown  in  America,  short  staple  upland  cotton  usually  varies 
from  seven-eighths  to  one  and  one-fourth  inches.  When  the 
staple  of  upland  cotton  exceeds  one  and  one-fourth  inches,  it 
is  classed  as  long  staple  upland  cotton.  Cotton  of  the  latter 
type  ranges  from  one  and  one-fourth  to  one  and  five-eighths 
inches,  while  sea  island  cotton  ranges  from  one  and  one-half  to 
two  and  one-half  inches,  one  and  three-quarters  to  two  inches 


Cotton  fibers  in  longitudinal  and  cross  section:  AAA  unripe  fibers;  BB  half-ripe  fibers 

CCC  fully  ripe  fibers 

(After  Evans) 

being  the  usual  length.  The  production  of  long  staple  upland 
and  of  sea  island  cotton  is  insignificant  compared  with  that  of 
short  staple  upland.  In  view  of  the  demand  for  Egyptian 
cotton,  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  believes 
that  planters  should  give  more  attention  to  the  raising  of  long 
staple  upland  cotton.^ 

The  mean  diameter  of  short  staple  cotton  is  about  0.0008  inch 
and  of  sea  island  cotton  about  0.0006  inch.  The  fiber  is  some- 
what larger  in  the  middle,  ends  abruptly  where  it  is  attached  to 
the  seed  and  is  tapering  and  pointed  at  its  free  end.  In  short 
staple  cotton  there  are  about  140  million  individual  fibers  to  the 
pound.  It  is  stated  that  if  a  cotton  fiber  were  magnified  until  it 
was  one  inch  in  diameter  it  would  be  over  100  feet  long,  and  that 

iU.   S.   Dept.  Agr.   Yearbook   1903,   p.    121. 


FIBIiR    CROPS  319 

if  the  separate  fibers  in  a  pound  were  placed  end  to  end  they 
would  reach  2,200  miles. 

The  tensile  strength  or  breaking  strain  of  the  cotton  fiber 
may  vary  from  about  2.5  to  15  grams,  depending  on  the  fineness 
and  ripeness  of  the  fiber.^  Hilgard  found  American  upland 
cotton  to  vary  from  4  to  14  grams.  Silk  has  a  greater  and  wool 
a  less  tensile  strength  than  cotton  in  proportion  to  the  diameter 


Cotton  seeds  with  lint  attached,  illustrating  types  of  long  staple  cotton.     7  Imported 

Mit  Aiifi  'Egyptian),  b  ordinary  sea  island 

(After  Webber) 

of  their  respective  fibers.  The  tensile  strength  of  various 
fibers  in  relation  to  their  size  and  therefore  their  strength  in 
relation  to  the  weight  of  garment  may  be  expressed  by  the 
"breaking  length,"  which  means  the  length  of  fiber  which  would 
break  of  its  own  weight. 

Table  Showing  Length  of  Fiber  Which  Will  Break  of  Its 
Own  Weight 

Breaking  length 

Fiber  in  miles 

Wool 5.1 

Jute 12.4 

Ramie  or  China  grass 12.4 

Flax 14.9 

Cotton 15.5 

Hemp 18.6 

Manila  hemp 19.8 

Silk 20.5 

1  In   order   to    get   concordant    results,    care   must   be    taken    concerning   the 
method  of  suspension. 


320  THE   FORAGE   AND   FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

This  table  shows  that  in  proportion  to  its  weight,  cotton  has 
three  times  and  silk  four  times  the  tensile  strength  of  wool. 
The  value  of  hemp  and  manila  hemp  for  cordage  is  also  em- 
phasized. The  full  tensile  strength  of  fibers  is  not  utilized  when 
made  into  cordage  or  fabrics.  In  the  case  of  cotton  only  20 
to  25  per  cent,  of  the  total  breaking  strain  is  realized  when 
spun  into  yarn. 

Vegetable  fibers  in  general  are  less  elastic  and  less  hydroscopic 
than  wool  or  silk.  In  this  respect  raw  cotton  is  no  exception, 
although  the  moisture  content,  normally  seven  to  eight  per  cent., 
does  vary  with  the  atmospheric  conditions,  and  hence  is  a  factor 
in  the  purchase  as  well  as  in  the  spinning  of  cotton.  Although 
raw  cotton  is  rather  non-absorbent  to  water,  it  becomes  ex- 
tremely absorbent  when  the  waxy  and  fatty  matters  are  re- 
moved. 

409.  Structure  of  Fiber. — Aside  from  its  natural  impurities 
consisting  chiefly  of  pectic  acid,  coloring  matter,  wax,  oil,  and 
proteid  matter,  the  cotton  fiber  may  be  divided  into  three 
parts:  (i)  the  main  cell  wall,  probably  pure  cellulose  and  con- 
stituting 85  per  cent,  of  the  fiber;  (2)  an  outer  membrane  or 
skin;  and  (3)  an  inner  membrane  or  wall  of  the  central  canal. 
Both  of  these  membranes  are  less  soluble  in  a  solution  of  am-- 
monio-copper  oxide  than  the  cell  wall.  The  former  is  probably 
modified  cellulose,  while  the  latter  is  a  thin  layer  of  dried  proto- 
plasm which  was  contained  in  the  living  fiber.  Some  authorities 
recognize  a  secretion  within  the  canal  itself  corresponding  to  the 
pith  of  a  quill. 

When  a  fiber  is  treated  with  a  solution  of  ammonio-copper 
oxide  the  fiber  swells,  but  not  throughout  its  whole  length. 
According  to  some  authorities  the  ligatures  which  prevent  the 
swelling  of  the  cell  walls  at  intervals  are  distinct  from  the  outer 
membrane  or  skin,  while  according  to  others  they  are  believed 
to  be  sections  of  the  outer  skin  which  have  resisted  the  action 
of  the  reagent. 


FIBER    CROPS  321 

410.  Qualities  of  Lint. — Some  of  the  factors  which  give 
cotton  value  as  compared  to  other  fibers,  particularly  vege- 
table fibers,  are  its  cheapness,  uniformity,  flexibility,  and 
wearing  quality.  The  wearing  quality  is  doubtless  due  to  the 
fact  that  each  fiber  is  a  single  cell  and  therefore  the  fiber  is 
less  readily  disintegrated  by  wear  or  the  application  of  alkalis, 
soap  and  the  like  in  washing.  It  is  adapted  to  nearly  all  forms 
of  woven  fabrics,  and  is  spun  into  yarn  with  greater  ease 
and  rapidity  than  any  other  vegetable  fiber. 

The  factors  which  give  one  sample  of  cotton  spinning  value 
compared  to  another  are  length,  uniformity  of  length,  fineness, 
strength,  and  the  number  and  uniformity  of  twists.  As  lint 
occurs  in  commerce  the  purity  and  color  of  the  sample  are  im- 
portant factors. 

411.  Linters. — In  addition  to  the  fibers  just  mentioned, 
known  in  commerce  as  lint,  the  seeds  of  upland  cotton  are  cov- 
ered with  a  dense  undergrowth  of  short  fuzzy  fibers.  These 
short  fibers  in  ginning  mostly  remain  with  the  seed.  They  are, 
however,  more  or  less  removed  with  the  lint  and  thus  materially 
affect  the  commercial  value  of  the  latter.  This  short  fiber, 
which  constitutes  about  10  per  cent,  of  the  total  weight  of  the 
fiber,  is  known  usually  as  "linters"  before  it  reaches  the  manu- 
facturer and  afterwards  as  "neps,"  although  neps  may  consist 
also  of  broken  fibers  caused  by  the  manufacturing  process.^ 

412.  Proportion  of  Parts. — The  table  following  shows  the 
percentage  of  parts  of  the  upland  cotton  plant  as  obtained  by 
the  Georgia,  Tennessee,  and  Alabama  stations.  The  results  of 
the  Georgia  Station  are  the  proportion  of  the  air-dry  parts, 
while  in  the  Tennessee  and  Alabama  stations  the  proportion  of 
the  water- free  substance  is  given.  The  difference  in  the  mode 
of  expressing  the  results  explains,  in  part,  probably  the  differ- 
ence in  the  result  obtained  as  given  on  the  next  page. 

1  Matthews:  Textile  Fibres,  p.   129. 


322  THE   FORAGE   AND   FIBER   CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

Table  Showing  Percentage  of  Parts  of  Upland  Cotton  Plant 


Parts 

Georgia 

Tennessee 

Alabama 

Station 

Station 

Station 

Lint 

9.8 

10.6 

12.1 

Seed 

19.8 

23.0 

20.5 

Burs 

12.7 

14.2 

14.7 

Leaves           

12.7 

20.3 

22.9 

Stems 

35.2 

23.1 

24.5 

Roots 

9.8 

8.8 

5.3 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

In  general  there  are  two  pounds  of  seed  produced  for  each 
pound  of  ginned  lint.  Short  staple  upland  seed  cotton  producing 
35  to  38  per  cent,  of  lint  may  be  considered  high,  29  to  32  per 
cent,  low,  while  above  38  or  below  29  per  cent,  may  be  consid- 
ered very  high  or  very  low  respectively.  Sea  island  cotton 
formerly  produced  only  20  per  cent,  of  lint,  but  varieties  have 
been  selected  until  30  or  more  per  cent,  is  obtained  in  some 
instances.  Long  staple  upland  cotton  generally  ranges  from 
27  to  32,  usually  less  than  30  per  cent. 

413.  Composition. — The  following  table  gives  analyses  of 
plant,  seed  and  lint  of  upland  cotton  grown  at  the  Tennessee 
Station :  ^ 

Table  Showing  Analysis  of  the  Upland  Cotton  Plant 


Analysis 

Plant 

Seed 

Lint 

Water 

7.36 

7.04 

6.74 

Ash 

5.81 

3.29 

1.65 

Protein    (Nx6.25)       . 

9.13 

19.18 

1.50 

Crude  fiber  

30.94 

22.43 

83.71 

Nitrogen-free  extract  . 

42.84 

26.44 

5.79 

Fat 

3.92 

21.62 

0.61 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

U.  S.  Dopt.  Agr.,  O.  E.  S.  Bui.  No.  33   (1896),  pp  120,  122,  123. 


FIBER   CROPS 


323 


The  lint  is  not  pure  cellulose,  but  contains  also  small  quanti- 
ties of  protein,  the  remnant  of  the  living  cell  and  some  ex- 
tractive matter.  The  fat  probably  is  absorbed  from  contact  with 
the  seed.  The  seed  is  characterized  by  its  high  content  of 
protein  and  fat  in  which  regard  it  is  somewhat  similar  to  the 
seeds  of  three  other  cultivated  but  somewhat  minor  crops, 
namely,  flax,  peanut,  and  soy  bean.  The  following  table  shows 
the  maximum  and  minimum  protein  and  fat  content  as  deter- 
mined by  American  analyses  for  the  air-dry  seeds  of  these  four 
plants : 

Table  Showing  Protein  and  Fat  in  Seeds  of  Four  Plants 


Plant 

Trotein 

Fat 

Cotton 

Flax 

Peanut         

Soy  bean    .         .         . 

Minimum 
14.5 
20.3 
25.7 
26.3 

Maximum 
23.7 
25.8 
28.0 
40.2 

Minimum 
18.9 
31.7 
35.7 
12.3 

Maximum 

29.1 
37.9 
47.4 
19.0 

414.    Ash. — The   following  table   shows  the  ash  constituents 
in  the  whole  plant,  seed  and  lint: 

Table  Showing  Ash  Content  of  Cotton 


Analysis 

Whole  plant 

Seed 

Lint 

Phosphoric   acid   .... 

0.9 

1.3 

0.1 

Potash 

2.5 

1.2 

0.5 

Soda     . 

0.3 

0.2 

0.1 

Lime     . 

2.8 

0.3 

0.2 

Magnesia      . 

0.8 

0.6 

0.1 

Ferric  oxide 

0.3 

0.1 

0.02 

Sulphuric    acid 

0.6 

0.1 

0.06 

Chlorine 

.... 

.... 

.... 

Insoluble 

1.0 

0.1 

0.05 

324 


THE    FORAGE   AND   FIBER   CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


The  Tennessee  and  Alabama  stations  have  determined  the  total 
amount  of  dry  matter  in  the  whole  plant,  including  roots,  and 
the  chemical  constituents  contained  therein  for  each  loo  pounds 
of  lint  produced,  thus  indicating  the  demands  made  upon  the 
soil  for  plant  food. 

Dry  Matter  and  Chemical  Constituents  for  Each  100  Pounds 
Cotton  Lint 


Analysis 


Dry    matter 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric  acid 

Potash 

Lime 

Magnesia 


415.  Collateral  Reading. — J.  M.  Matthews:  The  Textile  Fibres,  pp.  124- 
138,   139-155.     New  York:  John  Wiley  and  Sons,   1904. 

William  H.  Seaman:  On  the  Identification  of  Fibers.  In  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr., 
Fiber  Investigations  Rpt.  No.  9:  A  Descriptive  Catalogue  of  the  World,  pp. 
352-8. 

C.  B.  Williams:  Cotton  Plant.  The  Bulletin,  North  Carolina  Dept.  Agr. 
(September,   1906),   pp.   3-16. 


XVIII 


FIBER   CROPS 

COTTON 

Varieties  and  Improvement 
416.  Species. — Index  Kewensis  recognizes  24  species  of 
cotton  with  88  synonyms.  Linnaeus  classified  cotton  into  three 
ppecies:  harbadense,  herbaceum  and  arboreum,  the  latter  being 
the  tree  cotton  of  Asia.^  Under  this  classification  sea  island, 
Egyptian  and  Peruvian  cotton  would  fall  within  the  first-class 
and  American  upland  and  India  cotton  would  fall  in  the  second 
class.  It  may  be  doubted  whether  the  wild  prototypes  of  the 
cultivated  species  have  ever  been  recognized. 

"The  great  variability  and  the  tendency  to  hybridize  make  it  difficult  to 
determine  to  which  species  a  given  plant  may  belong.  No  cultivated  plant 
responds  so  quickly  to  ameliorated  conditions  of  soil,  climate,  and  cultivation 
as  the  cotton  plant,  and  to  this  fact  is  due  much  of  the  confusion  as  to  species 
and  varieties.  Another  factor  entering  into  the  confusion  is  the  imperfectly 
known  types  that  have  been  described  as  species.  It  has  been  stated  that 
some  of  the  species  widely  cultivated  are  wholly  unknown  in  a  wild  state,  and 
some  of  the  specimens  described  by  Linnaeus  were  in  all  probability  from 
plants  that  had  long  been  in  cultivation.  The  work  of  establishing  the  origin 
of  the  cultivated  species  has  been  still  further  complicated  by  the  exchange 
of  seed  from  country  to  country  that  has  been  going  on  for  at  least  four 
centuries.2 

In  the  classification  given  below  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Plant  Industry  is  followed.^ 

*  Some  of  the  cotton  grown  in  Peru  is  of  the  arboreum  type. 
2U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Off.  Expt.  Sta.  Bui.  No.  33  (1896),  p.  68. 
»U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook  1903,  p.  388. 

325 


326  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER   CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

417.  American  Upland  Cotton. —  {Gossypium  hirsiitum  L.). — 
This  species  is  native  of  the  American  tropics.     The  plant  is 

a  perennial  but  is  cultivated  as 
an  annual.  It  is  characterized 
by  the  species  having  in  addi- 
tion to  the  pearly  white  lint 
one-half  to  one  and  a  half 
inches  long  a  dense  covering 
of  short  lint  varying  in  color 
from  whitish  or  brownish  to 
greenish.  This  is  the  chief 
kind  of  cotton  raised  in  Amer- 
ica and  hence  in  the  world. 

418.  India  Cotton  (G.  her- 
baceum  L.). — This  species  is 
native  of  southern  Asia,  and 
according  to  some  writers 
synonymous  with  the  former. 
The  plants  differ  from  Amer- 
ican upland  cotton  in  their 
more  slender,  less  woody  stems 
with    leaves    having    rounded 

American  upland  cotton  •      ,       1       r     1  •         111 

(From  photo  by  Dewey)  mstead  of  sharp-pomted  lobes, 

and  in  the  smaller  and  more 
spherical  bolls.  The  lint  of  some  varieties  is  glossy  white,  of 
others  dull,  of  some  yellow,  and  still  others  golden  brown.  It 
is  generally  coarser  and  shorter  than  American  upland  cotton, 
ranging  from  one-half  to  an  inch  in  length.  It  is  cultivated 
in  southern  Asia. 

419.  Sea  Island  Cotton  (G.  harhadense  L.). — This  species 
was  found  in  the  West  Indies  when  Columbus  first  visited  those 
islands.  The  plant  differs  from  upland  cotton  in  its  larger 
growth,  three  to  eight  feet  high,  with  longer  and  more  flexible 
branches,  more  deeply  lobed  leaves,  bright  yellow   instead  of 


FIBER    CROPS 


ZV 


white  flowers,  and  sharp-pointed  bolls,  having  three  instead  of 
four  or  five  divisions  or  locks.  The  seeds  are  black  or  dark 
brown,  and  are  not  covered 
with  a  persistent  fuzz.  The 
lint  is  1.4  to  2  inches,  some- 
times 2.5  inches  long;  finer 
and  usually  softer  and 
more  lustrous  than  upland 
cotton. 

Sea  island  cotton  yields 
less  per  acre  and  costs 
more  to  pick  and  gin,  but 
commands  a  higher  price, 
usually  ranging  from  two 
to  fifteen  cents  higher,  than 
upland  cotton.  It  is  grown 
chiefly  on  islands  and  ad- 
jacent mainlands  of  South 
Carolina  and  Georgia,  al- 
though to  some  extent  on 
sandy  soils  of  the  interior 
of  Georgia  and  northern 
Florida. 


India  cotton 
(From  photo  by  Dewey  of  herbarium  specimen) 


420.  Egyptian  Cotton. — This  type  is  considered  to  be  the 
same  type  as  sea  island  modified  on  account  of  cultivation  on 
the  irrigated  lands  of  Egypt  where  scarcely  any  rain  falls. 
Many  generations  of  growth  under  these  conditions  and  possibly 
some  by  hybridization  with  India  cotton  have  developed  cer- 
tain qualities  of  lint  especially  adapted  to  the  manufacture  of 
hosiery  yarns  and  mercerized  goods.  Varieties  have  been 
brought  to  the  United  States  and  are  being  grown  by  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  to  adapt  them  to  the  climatic 
and  soil  conditions.^     The  opinion  is  expressed,  however,  that 


1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook   1902,  p.  381. 


328  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

the  demand  for  this  grade  of  cotton  can  be  met  by  the  American 
planter  by  growing  long  staple  upland  cotton. 

421.  Peruvian  Cotton  {G.  pcruvianum  Cav.). — This  cotton 
is  characterized  by  the  seeds  in  each  lobe  of  the  capsule  cling- 
ing together  in  a  compact  cluster.     Seeds  are  similar  to  sea 


Cotton  bolls.     On  left  American  upland;  in  center  sea  island;  on  right  India  cotton  boll 

(After  Dewey) 

island  cotton.  Lint  shows  a  wide  variation  in  color  and  texture, 
white,  brown,  reddish,  rough  and  harsh  or  smooth  and  soft.  The 
staple  is  mostly  shorter,  coarser  and  more  wiry  than  American 
upland  cotton.  Some  varieties  have  a  lint  which,  when  made 
into  fabrics,  closely  resembles  wool.  The  plant  is  perennial,  but 
only  the  growth  from  the  second  and  third  years  is  utilized.^ 
Peruvian  cotton  is  raised  chiefly  in  Peru  and  Brazil. 

422.  Classification  of  Varieties. — Since  the  classification  of 
cotton  into  species  is  so  diffcult,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the 
classification  of  varieties  is  equally  difficult.  There  are  at  least 
150  so-called  varieties  of  upland  cotton,  93  having  been  tested  at 
the  Alabama  Station.  Varieties  of  cotton  have  not  been  for  the 
most  part  carefully  described  which,  together  with  the  tendency 
of  the  plant  to  vary  with  its  environment,  makes  great  con- 
fusion in  the  naming  of  varieties. 

1  Matthews:  Textile  Fibres,  p.   116. 


FIBER   CROPS 


329 


The  Alabama  Station  has  classified  short  staple  upland  cotton 
into  six  classes  to  which  it  adds  long  staple  upland  varieties  as 
a  seventh  class,  as  follows: 


Upland    . 
Cotton     ■< 


Short 
Staple 


Long 
Staple 


Cluster  varieties 
or  Dickson  type 


Semi-cluster  varieties 
or  Peerless  type 


Rio  Grande  varieties 
or  Peterkin  type 


Short  Limb  varieties 
or  King  type 


Big  Boll  varieties 
or  Duncan  type 


Long  Limb  varieties  or 
Petit  Gulf  type 


Long  Staple  varieties 
or  Allen  type 


r    Di 


Dickson 

ackson 

elborn 


Boyd 

Cummings 

Drake 

No.  28  N 

Hawkins  Prolific 

Hawkins  Jumbo 

Herndon 

Minor 

Norris 

Tyler 

Peterkin 

Peterkin  Limb  Clustet 

Texas  Wood 

Wise 

King 
Lowry 
Parks 
Herlong 

Banks 

Christopher 

Coppedge 

Culpepper 

Duncan 

Grayson 

Tones  Improved 

Lee 

Russell 

Scroggins 

Strickland 

Texas  Storm  Proof 

Thrash 

Truitt 

Pruitt  Premium 

Ellis 
Gunn 
Petit  Gulf 
Cheise 

Allen  Hybrid 

Allen  Improved 

Cook  (W.  A.) 

Doughty 

Griffin 

Improved  Long  Staple 

Matthews 

Moon 


The  lines  of  demarcation  between  these  groups  are  not  al- 
ways clear  and  distinct,  one  group  often  merging  into  another 
by  an  almost  imperceptible  gradation/ 


1  Alabama  Station  Bui.  No.  107   (1899),  p.  202. 


330 


THE   FORAGE   AND   FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


Class  I,  Cluster  Varieties  or  Dickson  Type. — The  most  striking  char- 
acters are  the  absence  of  long  wood  limbs,  except  at  the  base,  and  the  tendency 
of  the  bolls  to  grow  in  clusters.  The  plant  is  usually  tall,  slender  and  erect. 
The  bolls  and  seed  are  usually  small  or  more  rarely  medium;  seeds  thickly 
covered  with  usually  whitish  fuzz,  rarely  any  brownish  or  greenish  tinge. 
Varieties  moderately  early  maturing.  Percentage  of  lint  ranges  from  32  to 
34  per  cent. 

Class  II.  Semi-cluster  Varieties  or  Peerless  Type. — Similar  to  pre- 
ceding type,  but  having  along  the  main  stem  very  short  limbs  above  the  base 


pImIII-  i  Ml  1^  ililll 


Mature  unopened  and  opened  long  staple  upland  cotton  bolls;  variety 

Allen  Improved.  Two-thirds  natural  size 

(From  photo  by  Webber) 

limbs,  which  latter  are  usually  of  medium  length.  Bolls  variable  in  size; 
seeds  usually  medium  in  size,  well  covered  with  fuzz  of  many  shades,  whitish, 
greenish,  or  brownish.     Varieties  early  to  medium  maturing. 

Class  III.  Rio  Grande  Varieties  or  Peterkin  Type. — This  type  is  char- 
acterized by  its  high  percentage  of  lint,  35  or  more  per  cent.,  and  the  absence 
of  fuzz  or  nearly  so  except  at  the  tip  end.  Plants  well  branched,  medium 
size.     Bolls  small;  black  seeds  quite  small.     Varieties  medium  maturing. 

Class  IV.  Short  Limb  \'arieties  or  King  Type.— Plants  small,  well 
branched  throughout;  limbs  short;  bolls  small,  seed  medium  and  thickly  cov- 
ered with  fuzz  usually  brownish,  more  rarely  greenish.  Percentage  of  lint 
32  to  34.     Varieties  characterized  by  extreme  earliness. 

Class  V.  Big  Boll  Varieties  or  Duncan  Type. — This  type  is  distinguished 
for  the  large  size  of  its  bolls,  51   to  68  being  required  to  produce  a  pound  ot 


FIBKR    CROPS 


331 


seed  cotton.  Seed  large,  covered  usually  with  a  thick  fuzz,  variable  from 
whitish  to  deep  green.  Per  cent,  of  lint  30  to  33.  Upper  limbs  often  short. 
Bolls  never  two-clustered.  Varieties  noted  for  late  maturity  and  vigorous 
growth  of  stalk. 

Class  VI.  Long  Limb  Varieties  or  Petit  Gulf  Type. — Plants  grow  to 
large  size,  have  long  limbs  and  straggling  appearance.  Bolls  and  seed  medium 
to  large,  latter  covered  with  fuzz  of  various  shades.  Per  cent,  of  lint  low 
to   medium.      As   a   class   poorly   suited  to   upland   soils. 

Class  VII.  Long  Staple  Varieties  or  Allen  Type. — Distinguished  for 
length  of  lint,  usually  measuring  from  one  and  one-eighth  to  one  and  five- 
eighths  inches  with  usually  less  than  30  per  cent,  of  lint.  Plants  similar  to 
Class  VI.  Bolls  medium,  long,  slender,  and  very  pointed.  Seeds  medium  to 
large,  usually  densely  covered  with  almost  pure  white  fuzz  with  no  trace  of 
green;  more  rarely  naked  seeds  distinguished  from  Class  III  by  larger  size. 
Varieties  late  maturing.  The  varieties  of  this  type  are  believed  to  have  been 
obtained  by  selecting  hybrids  of  sea  island  and  upland  cotton.  Chiefly  cul- 
tivated in  the  rich  alluvial  soils  of  the  Yazoo   Delta  in  Mississippi. 

423.  Standard  and  Recommended  Varieties. — The  Alabama 
Station  recommends  Peterkin  and  Truitt  as  standard  and  safe 
medium  maturing  varieties;  for  early  varieties  King,  Welborn, 
Dickson  and  Peerless  are  recommended.  Other  productive  va- 
rieties are  Jones  Improved,  Allen  Long  Staple,  Hawkins,  Herlong, 
and  Hunnicutt.^  In  1904  the  different  types  of  cotton  yielded 
as  follows :  ^ 

Table  Showing  Yield  of  Upland  Cotton 


Type 


Yield  of 

Yield  of 

lint,  lb. 

seed,  lb. 

468 

867 

601 

936 

471 

835 

466 

905 

400 

829 

Semi-cluster 
Rio   Grande 
Short  Limb  , 
Big  Boll 
Long  Staple 


At  the  Texas  Station  the  largest  yields  of  seed  cotton  during 
three  years  were  obtained  from  Beck's  Big  Boll,  Dixon's  Im- 


1  Alabama  Sta.  Bui.  No.  107  (1899),  p.  209. 

2  Alabama  Sta.  Bui.  No.  130  (1905),  p.  8. 


332  'JIIE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA       " 

proved,  Peerless,  Surefritit,  and  Cochran's  Prolific/  Cook's 
Improved,  Layton's  Improved,  and  Moss'  Improved,  the  latter  two 
similar  to  Peterkin's  Improved,  have  given  satisfactory  yields  at 
the  Georgia  Station.  Schley,  a  variety  produced  by  the  Georgia 
Station,    by    selection,    has    given    good    results."      In    South 


Mature  unopened  and  opened  long  staple  upland  cotton  bolls;  variety  Griffin.    Two-thirds 

natural  size 
(From  photo  by  Webber* 

Carolina,  Texas  Oak,  Boles  Improved  Prolific  and  Drake 
Cluster  gave  the  largest  yield  of  lint  at  the  home  station;  Jones 
Improved  in  the  Upper  Pine  Belt  Region,  and  African,  King  and 
Truitt  at  Beech  Island.'"* 

The  United  States  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  mentions  Grif- 
fin as  one  of  the  best  long  staple  upland  cottons  now  grown.* 
Other  varieties  of  long  staple  cotton  are  Allen  Long  Staple, 

1  Texas  Sta.  Bnl.  No.  50   (1899),  p.  3. 

2  Georgia  Sta.  Bui.  No.'70   (1905),  p.  66. 

3  South  Carolina  Sta.  Bui.  No.  42   (1895),  p.  8. 
*  U.  S.   Dept.  Agr.   Yearbook   1902,  p.  380. 


FIBER    CROPS  333 

Cook,  Commander,  Moon,  Peeler,  Southern  Hope,  and  Sunflower/ 
This  Bureau  distributed  in  1903  the  following  varieties  for 
planting:  short  staple  upland  cotton;  Parker,  Jones  Improved, 
Excelsior  and  King:  long  staple  upland  cotton;  Allen  Improved 
and  Griffin :  sea  island ;  Seabrook  and  Rivers.^  The  last  va- 
riety is  considered  resistant  to  the  wilt  disease. 

424.  Desirable  Variety  Characters. — The  quantity  and  quality 
of  lint  produced  are  the  chief  considerations  in  the  raising  of 
cotton,  yet  with  the  present  demand  for  the  seed  the  yield  of  seed 
cannot  be  ignored.  The  qualities  to  be  sought  in  cotton,  there- 
fore, are  yield  of  seed  and  of  lint;  length,  fineness,  and  strength 
of  staple  as  well  as  uniformity  of  length,  the  latter  being  an  im- 
portant commercial  quality;  time  of  maturity;  and  resistance 
to  diseases  and  to  storms.  (428)  While  certain  character- 
istics of  the  plant  described  below  influence  yield,  the  inherent 
quality  of  productiveness  as  determined  by  weight  of  product 
on  a  given  area  is  of  the  first  importance  in  making  selections. 

The  yield  of  lint  depends  on  the  percentage  of  lint  to  seed 
cotton  and  the  weight  of  seed  cotton.  Small  seed  is  usually  an 
indication  of  high  percentage  of  lint.  The  size  of  seed  as  a 
variety  characteristic  does  not  seem  to  be  related  to  the  yield 
of  seed  cotton,  but  the  Alabama  Station  found  that  large  seed 
produced  a  heavier  yield  of  seed  cotton  than  small  seed  of  the 
same  variety. 

The  weight  of  seed  cotton  seems  to  be  dependent,  in  general, 
upon  the  size  of  the  bolls,  the  number  of  bolls  per  plant,  and  the 
number  of  plants  per  acre.  In  proportion  to  size,  short  jointed 
plants  will  produce  more  bolls  than  long  jointed  ones.  In  gen- 
eral, the  total  weight  of  seed  cotton  varies  more  according  to 
variety  and  environment  than  does  the  percentage  of  lint,  hence 
as  a  rule  the  amount  of  seed  cotton  rather  than  the  percentage 
of  lint  is  the  more  important  character;  although,  of  course,  of 

ilbid.,  p.  126. 

2  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bu.  PI.  Ind.  Bui.  No.  25,  p.  47. 


334  THE    FORAGE   AND   FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

two  varieties  yielding  the  same  amount  of  seed  cotton,  tiie  one 
having"  the  highest  percentage  of  lint  will  be  preferable,  other 
things  being  equal. 

In  general,  medium  maturing  varieties  produce  the  largest 
yield  of  seed  cotton,  but  early  maturing  varieties  may  be  more 
desirable  in  order  to  increase  the  quality  of  the  cotton,  which  in 
later  varieties  becomes  stained  from  the  rains.  Where  the  boll 
weevil  does  damage  early  varieties  are  desirable  because  such 
varieties  are  less  injured  by  the  weevil,  since  the  number  of 
weevils  increases  as  the  season  advances. 

The  Georgia  Station  has  tested  20  to  30  varieties  annually  for 
twelve  years,  and  by  dividing  these  into  two  classes — namely, 
those  which  gave  the  best  results  and  poorest  results  based  or 
lint  at  eleven  cents  per  pound  and  seed  at  eighty  cents  per  hun- 
dred pounds — it  was  found  that  the,  per  cent,  of  lint  in  the  besi 
half  was  34.7  and  in  the  poorest  half  32.5;  that  the  number  oi 
bolls  to  the  pound  of  seed  cotton  was  for  the  best  half  70.1  anc 
for  the  poorest  half  74.7;  that  the  number  of  seeds  per  pounc 
of  seeds  was  for  the  best  half  4,144  and  for  the  poorest  half  4,126 
The  best  half  yielded  56.4  per  cent,  of  its  cotton  in  the  firsi 
two  pickings,  while  the  poorest  half  yielded  58.8  per  cent,  of  itj 
cotton.^ 

While  in  general  early  varieties  have  smaller  bolls  thar 
later  maturing  varieties,  and  thus  are  likely  to  yield  less  cotton 
the  Texas  Station  believes  that  by  selection  early  varieties  wit\ 
large  bolls  may  be  produced. 

425.  Crossing. — Cotton  flowers  are  large  and  attractive,  anc 
are  much  visited  by  bees  and  other  insects.  The  flowers,  how- 
ever, are  abundantly  self-fertile  and  set  seeds  normally  wher 
covered  with  paper  bags.  Under  ordinary  field  conditions  obser- 
vations indicate  that  from  5  to  10  per  cent,  of  seeds  are  cross- 
fecundated.^    While  cross-fertilization  is  not  so  great,  therefore 

1  Georgia  Sta.  Bui.  No.  70   (1905),  p.  70. 
aU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook  1902,  p.  380. 


FIBER   CROPS  335 

as  in  maize  and  some  other  plants,  it  is  sufficiently  important  to 
be  considered  in  attempting  to  maintain  pure  strains  or  in  ma- 
king improvements  by  selection.  Pollen  is  mainly  carried  by 
bees.  Practical  isolation  may  be  secured  by  planting  a  quarter 
or  half  a  mile  from  other  cotton,  particularly  if  surrounded  by 
woods,  although  for  accurate  breeding  work  greater  precaution 
may  be  necessary. 

Where  crossing  is  feared  from  undesirable  types  mixed  with 
the  type  it  is  desired  to  propagate,  this  may  be  prevented  by 
going  through  the  fields  as  soon  as  the  lower  flowers  appear 
and  removing  all  plants  showing  the  undesirable  characters. 
Seed  may  then  be  selected  from  the  upper  bolls,  which  were  fer- 
tilized after  the  objectionable  plants  had  been  removed. 

426.  Seed  Selection. — With  cotton  as  with  most  other  crops, 
evidence  is  accumulating  to  show  that  the  best  results  are  ob- 
tained by  selecting  where  it  is  regularly  grown  rather  than  in 
the  change  of  seed.  (C.  A.  40,  41,  116,  277,  393)  Probably  half 
the  cotton  seed  planted  is  taken  at  random  from  the  public  gin. 
Some  of  the  more  careful  growers,  however,  send  trusted  em- 
ployees through  the  field  at  the  second,  and  if  necessary  to  ob- 
tain sufficient  seed  also  at  the  third,  picking  who  select  the  seed 
cotton  from  the  most  productive  plants  of  the  type  desired.  The 
first  and  fourth  pickings  are  not  generally  considered  so  desira- 
ble for  seed.  The  seed  cotton  thus  obtained  is  ginned  separately. 
By  the  use  of  such  seed  much  has  been  accomplished  in  improv- 
ing the  general  yield  and  quality  of  cotton.  Cotton  degenerates 
easily  and  improves  rapidly  under  careful  selection. 

427.  Improvement  of  Cotton. — For  those  who  wish  to  make  more  rapid 
and  definite  progress  in  the  improvement  of  cotton  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Plant  Industry  recommends  the  following  method  which  has  been  practised 
successfully  for  several  years  by  some  growers  of  sea  island  cotton,  the  staple 
having  been  increased  from  1.75  to  2.5  inches  by  this  method.^  This  method 
requires  four  years  of  selection  to  secure  seed  for  general  planting.  The  fol- 
lowing diagram  shows  the  steps  to  be  taken  with  each  plant  selected. 

lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook  1898,  pp.  358-62. 


336 


THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


First   Year — 

The  first  year  five  ^  or  more  plants  are  selected  from  any  field  of  tlie  type 
it  is  desired  to  improve,  the  larger  the  field  and  the  more  rigid  the  selection 
the  better.  The  diagram  assumes  for  clearness  that  only  one  plant  has  been 
selected,  but  it  is  important  that  more  than  one  plant  be  taken,  since  fre- 
quently a  fine  appearing  plant  fails  to  transmit  its  characteristics. 
Second  Year — 

Five  hundred  or  more  seeds  are  selected  from  each  plant  and  planted  the 
next  year.  When  these  plants  reach  the  proper  stage  of  maturity  the  entire 
progeny  should  be  examined  to  see  whether  the  plant  selected  the  first  yeai 
shows    strong   transmitting   power.      If    satisfactory,    select    several    of    the   best 


1st  YEAR        ZoYCAR        3oYEAR         4THYt:AR        57hYEAR 


StCtCTPlANT©— — ^g^«-^   5  ACRES 


SOXCT  PLANT  fl 


500 

PLANTS 


.6CttCT  PLANT 


I 


5  ACRES 


GtNtRALCROP 


StLCCT  PLANTI 


i 


>»w    >|  5  ACRES    I 


SELECT  PlANTf  1 


Diagram  illustrating  method  of  selecting  cotton 
(After  Webber) 


plants;   if   not,   reject   all.      From   the   specially   selected   plants   of   this   second 
generation  select  a  single  plant  to  be  handled  exactly  in  the  same  way  as  the 
selections  made  the   first   year.      The   seed   from  the   remaining  selected   plants 
are  retained  to  plant  a  seed  patch  of  five  acres  in  the  third  year. 
Third  Year— 

The  third  year  there  will  be  grown   500   or  more  plants  of  each   of  the  in- 
dividual   selections,   and   as   many   five-acre   seed   patches    for   seed    for    general 
planting  as  there   were   individuals   of  the   first   year   whose   progeny   was   con- 
sidered worth   propagating. 
Fourth    Year — 

This   year  there   will  be   seed    for   general    planting   from   the   five-acre    seed 
patches  of  the  previous  year;   five-acre  seed  patches  from  the  specially  selected 

iln  the  careful  pedigree  breeding  of  ordinary  cottons  probably  25   or  m  )rc 
superior  plants  should  be  selected. 


FIBER  cRors  337 

individuals   of   the   second   year;    and    500    or    more    plants   of    each    of   the   in- 
dividual  selections. 

The  method  here  outlined  is  to  be  continued  indefinitely,  as  it  is  only  by 
the  careful  and  continuous  selection  that  high  bred  strains  can  be  kept  up  to 
a  state  of  efficiency,  and  if  for  any  reason  is  interrupted  tJ^ere  is  a  general 
and   rapid   decline. 

428.  Score  Card. — For  careful  comparisons  in  making  selec- 
tions a  score  card  arranged  to  compare  and  emphasize  the 
points  especially  sought  is  desirable.  The  United  States  Bureau 
of  Plant  Industry  uses  the  score  on  p.  338  in  judging  hybrids  of 
sea  island  and  upland  cotton  for  the  purpose  of  securing  cotton 
for  cultivation  in  upland  regions  which  will  have  long  staple,  big 
bolls,  opening  well  and  easy  to  pick,  and  black  seed.   In  this  case 

all  plants  not  having  black  seeds  were  rejected.^ 

« 

429.  Scale  of  Qualities. — In  place  of  a  score  card,  such  as  sug- 
gested above,  the  Texas  Station  proposes  a  set  of  maximum 
and  minimum  qualities,  as  follow^s: 

For  Early  Fruiting. — The  first  fruit  limb  must  not  be  higher  than  the  fifth 
joint  above  the  seed  leaf  joint.  The  first  primary  or  wood  limb  must  not  be 
above  the  fifth  joint,  and  the  number  of  primary  limbs  should  not  exceed  four. 

For  Rapid  Fruiting. — The  joints  on  the  main  stem,  fruit  limbs,  and  primary 
limbs  must  not  exceed  three  inches.  Fruit  limbs  should  grow  in  succession  at 
each  joint  of  the  main  stem  and  primary  limbs,  and  should  be  continuous  in 
growth   for   continuous   fruiting. 

For  Productiveness. — The  bolls  should  not  be  less  than  \.S  inches  in  di- 
ameter. The  per  cent,  of  limb  to  seed  cotton  should  not  be  less  than  33.3. 
The  rate  of  growth  is  very  important,  and,  therefore,  the  larger  the  plant  of 
ihe  type,  the  greater  is  its  inherent  rate  of  growth,  its  earliness,  rapidity  of 
fruiting,  and  yield. - 

430.  Influence  of  Environment. — "All  evidence  indicates  that  the  seed 
produced  by  plants  grown  on  good  soil  under  the  best  conditions  produces  in 
its  turn  the  best  and  most  vigorous  seed.  It  is  thus  desirable  to  plant  the 
selection  field  on  good  rich  soil  of  the  same  kind  on  which  the  crop  is  to 
be  generally  cultivated.  If  the  general  crop  is  to  be  grown  on  a  light,  sandy 
soil,  it  would  of  course  be  wrong  policy  to  place  the  selec^'^'on  field  on  a  rich, 
heavy  loam.  The  soil  should  be  of  the  kind  used  for  the  general  fields,  but 
unexhausted   by   previous   cultivation.      It    is    also    desirable    that    the    selection 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook  1902,  p.  376. 
-Texas  Sta.  Bui.  No.  79  (1905),  p.  8. 


33^  THE   FORAGE   AND   FIBER   CROPS   IN   AMERICA 

Score  of  Points  Used  in  Judging  Sea  Island  and  Upland  Cotton 


Size  of  bolls,   15  points 


Length  of  lint,  20  points 


Very  large,    15   points 
Large,   14  points 
Medium,    12  points 
Small,   8   points 
.  Very  small,  3  points 

2  inches,  20  points 

IVs   inches,  19  points 

IH  inches,  18  points 

15^  inches,  17  points 

IJ^   inches,  15  points 

IH  inches,  10  points 

1%   inches,  5  points 


Fineness  of  lint,  10  points 


Yield,   20  points 


Uniformity  in  length  of  lint,  7  points 


Very  fine,   10  points 
Fine,  8  points 
Medium,  6  points 
.  Coarse,  3  points 

Excellent,  20  points 
Good,   18  points 
Medium,   15  points 
Light  medium,   10  points 
Light,  5  points 

Excellent,  7  points 
Good,  6  points 
Fair,  4  points 
Poor,  2  points 


Strength  of  lint,  10  points 


Per  cent,  of  lint,  18  points 


Very  strong,   10  points 
Strong,  8  points 
Medium,  8  points 
Weak,  3  points 

33  -f  per  cent.,  18  points 
31-32  per  cent.,  17  points 
29-30  per  cent.,  16  points 
27-28  per  cent.,  15  points 
25-26  per  cent,,  10  points 
23-24  per  cent.,  5  points 


f 


FIBER    CROPS  339 

field  should  be  well   fertilized  and   cultivated,  as  every   means  should  be  used 
to  develop  the  best  plants  and   the  best   seeds."  ^ 

431.  Collateral  Reading. — H.  J.  Webber:  Improvement  of  Cotton  by  Seed 
Selection.     In  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook  1902,  pp.  365-386. 

C.  B.  Williams:  Cotton  Plant.  The  Bulletin,  North  Carolina  Dept.  Agr. 
(September,    1906),  pp.   16-27. 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook  1902,  p.  371. 


XIX 

FIBER   CROPS 

COTTON 

Climate  and  Soils 

432.  Distribution. — Cotton  production  is  limited  practically 
to  the  area  south  of  the  thirty-seventh  parallel  of  latitude, 
while  the  larger  and  most  intensive  production  is  located  south 
of  the  thirty-fifth  parallel.  In  Asia  the  limit  of  cultivation  ex- 
tends somewhat  farther  north.  The  possible  production  of  cot- 
ton is  almost  unlimited,  since  the  largest  land  surface  of  the 
globe  is  between  the  thirty-seventh  parallels  of  latitude  north 
and  south,  in  all  habitable  sections  of  which  cotton  can  be 
more  or  less  successfully  grown.  Within  this  area,  however,  its 
economic  production  is  limited  by  the  amount  and  distribution 
of  sunshine  and  rainfall,  as  well  as  by  temperature.  It  is  now 
grown  chiefly  between  parallels  20°  and  37°  north  latitude. 

433.  Temperature. — The  cotton  plant  is  extremely  sensitive 
to  temperature  conditions.  The  plant  requires  four  or  five 
months  of  uniformly  high  temperature  during  which  time  it 
makes  its  vegetative  growth.  A  cold  spell  during  this  period  is 
liable  to  cause  fruiting  and  is  not  desirable.  After  having 
made  its  vegetative  growth,  two  or  three  months  of  cooler 
weather,  with  a  greater  range  in  daily  temperature,  are  desirable 
to  bring  about  fruiting  and  ripening. 

For  the  best  production  of  cotton  there  should  not  be  killing 
frosts  later  than  April  first  nor  earlier  than  November  first,  and 
when  fifteen  days  may  be  subtracted  and  added  to  these  dates 
the  conditions  are  considered  even  more  favorable.    In  the  more 

340 


FIBER   CROPS 


341 


Temperature  Chart 


.llll 


.1 


nn: 


iiiii: 


80 


■n  NHi    nm  mm    mw. 


yliiJ^^ 


20 


Ithaca,  N.  Y.     Charlotte,  N.  C.     Aug:usta,  Ga.     Montgomery,  Ala. 


80  F 
60 


ill. 


jnii 


.iiiiii    .iiiiii.. 


^■n    mn  iMir^      n 


liitii 


Lincoln,  Neb.    Memphis,  Tenn.  New  Orleans,  La.   Houston,  Tex. 

Chart  showing  temperature  in  different  regions  of  the  United  States.     Figures 

indicate  temperature  Fahrenheit  per  month.    The  months  read  from  the 

left.    Compare  with  chart  below 


Rainfall  Chart 


1..  ..II     .1  .11     III.... 

iHiiMff  niiin^i  m  RTi  n  ffi 

n    llllllllllll  llllllllllll  IIIIIIIIIHI  llllllllllll 

Ithaca,  N.Y.     Charlotte,  N.  C.      Augusta,  Ga.    Montgomery,  AUu 


Uk 


Lincoln,  Neb.     Memphis,  Tenn.  New  Orleans,  iLa.    Houstoo-  ^ox. 

Chart  showing  rainfall  In  different  regions  of  the  United  States.     Figures 

indicate  precipitation  in  Inches  per  month.    The  months  read  from  the 

left.    Compare  with  chart  above 


342  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

northerly  sections  of  the  cotton  belt  killing  frosts  occur  as  late 
as  April  15  and  as  early  as  October  15,  which  is  about  the  limit 
of  successful  cotton  culture. 

434.  Rainfall. — While  the  cotton  plant  is  extremely  sensitive 
to  temperature  conditions,  this  alone  is  not  sufficient  for  its  eco- 
nomic production.  During  the  growing  period  of  the  cotton 
plant  the  rainfall  should  be  abundant  and  well  distributed,  while 
during  the  ripening  period  comparatively  dry  weather  is  desir- 
able. Wet  weather  during  picking  is  very  injurious,  especially 
when  accompanied  by  high  wind.  Suitable  conditions  of  rainfall 
and  sunshine  are  more  likely  to  occur  inland  than  upon  the  coast. 
Upland  cotton  is  therefore  grown  inland,  while  sugar  cane 
and  rice  are  more  likely  to  be  grown  near  the  coast  in  tropical 
and  semi-tropical  countries. 

435.  Soils. — While  under  proper  climatic  conditions  cotton 
can  be  raised  upon  all  ordinary  soils  with  a  fair  degree  of  suc- 
cess, the  plant  is  greatly  modified  by  the  character  of  the  soil 
upon  which  it  is  grown  and  upon  the  same  soil  by  the  amount  of 
rainfall.  As  a  rule  sandy  soils  produce  the  smallest  yields,  but 
these  can  be  depended  upon  for  a  crop  under  rather  wide  cli- 
matic conditions.  Under  the  proper  climatic  conditions  clay 
soils  and  silty  clays  produce  the  maximum  crops,  although 
under  excessive  rainfall  the  plant  may  run  to  wood,  or  as  the 
planters  say,  to  weed,  with  small  production  of  lint.  Uplands 
produce  comparatively  small  plants  which  mature  early,  while 
bottom  lands  and  rich  black  prairies  produce  much  larger 
plants  which  mature  later. 

Cotton  grown  on  some  soils  is  more  subject  to  disease  and  in- 
sect enemies  than  when  grown  on  other  soil  types.  As  for  most 
other  crops,  especially  those  which  receive  intercultural  tillage, 
loam  soils  are  considered  safest,  and  are  for  other  reasons  pre- 
ferred. Mellow,  friable  soils  are  more  easily  worked  by  light 
machinery.     From  a  study  of  the  different  types  of  soils  it  is 


FIBER   CROPS 


343 


clear  that  clay  loams  and  silt  loams  give  much  higher  yields 
than  sandy  loams. 

436.     Soils   for   Sea  Island   Cotton. — "The  best   soils  for  this  variety  are 
light,  fine-grained,  sandy  soils,  containing  from  4  to  8  per  cent,  of  clay,  from 

4  to  6  per  cent,  of  silt,   and   from   75   to  90  per  cent,  of  fine  sand.      Soils  of 
this  character  from  James  Island  maintained  during  two  growing  seasons  about 

5  per   cent,   of  moisture,   and   are  very  different   from   the   best   types   of   soils 
adapted  to  the  upland  cotton."  ^ 


Diagram  showing  average  composition  of  soils  in  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coastal  plains, 

as  determined  by  mechanical  analysis  and  their  respective  adaptability 

to  cotton  production 

437.  Deterioration  of  Cotton  Lands. — Lands  devoted  to  cotton 
continuously  or  in  alternation  with  maize  only  readily  deterio- 
rate. The  following  table  gives  the  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  potash  found  in  the  air-dry  parts  of  the  plant 
removed  from  the  soil :  ^ 


Analysis 

Lint 

Seed 

Nitrogen 
Phosphoric   acid, 
Potash,    K,0 

p,o*  :*.;;; 

0.24 
0.06 
0.74 

3.07 
1.02 
1.17 

lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Off.  Expt.  Sta.  Bui.  No.  33   (1896),  p.  161. 
2  Tennessee  Sta.  Bui.  Vol.  XIV  (1891);  No.  5,  p.   125. 


344  '^-li^    FORAGE    AND    F113ER    CRUPS    IN    AMERICA 

The  lint  not  only  contains  small  percentages  of  nitrogen  and 
phosphoric  acid,  but  the  weight  of  lint  obtained  per  acre  is  small 
compared  to  the  weight  of  most  cultivated  crops.  The  seed  con- 
tains relatively  high  quantities  of  both  substances,  and  there  are 
rather  more  than  two  pounds  of  seed  for  each  pound  of  lint. 
The  seed,  however,  is  not  injured  as  a  fertilizer  by  the  extrac- 
tion of  the  oil.  If  therefore  all  the  plants  except  the  lint  and  the 
oil  is  returned  to  the  soil,  the  loss  of  these  elements  from  the 
sale  of  the  products  is  trifling. 

The  soil  loses  fertility  by  the  oxidation  of  the  vegetable 
matter  in  the  soil  during  the  summer  months,  and  the  wash- 
ing away  of  the  material  thus  made  soluble  during  the  winter 
months.  The  comparative  bareness  of  the  soil  and  the  heavy 
rainfall  favor  erosion  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  causing  the 
removal  of  quantities  of  surface  soil.  Formerly  when  land  and 
labor  were  cheap,  old  cotton  fields  were  abandoned  when  no  lon- 
ger productive,  and  new  lands  were  brought  under  cultivation. 

The  cotton  states  have  comparatively  fev/  domestic  animals, 
and  the  climatic  conditions  do  not  favor  the  collection  and  pres- 
ervation of  manure.  While  manure  is  recognized  to  be  of  value 
it  does  not  enter  largely  into  the  production  of  cotton.  Since 
lands  and  labor  have  become  dearer  commercial  fertilizers  have 
entered  largely  into  its  production.  More  recently  a  greater 
diversity  of  crops,  especially  the  introduction  of  the  cowpea,  has 
obtained.  Such  diversification  is  a  factor  of  great  importance  in 
combating  fungous  diseases  and  insect  enemies. 

438.  Rotation. — The  two  main  soil  problems  connected  with 
the  growing  of  cotton  are  the  preventing  of  the  bodily  removal 
of  the  soil  through  erosion  and  the  securing  such  a  rotation  of 
crops  as  will  restore  the  organic  matter  to  soils  depleted  by 
long-continued  clean  cultivation  in  one  crop.^ 

Notwithstanding  that  a  well-ordered  system  of  rotation  of  crops 

1  Report  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture;  in  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook 
1905,  p.  69. 


FIBER    CROPS  345 

has  been  demonstrated  to  be  of  great  value,  the  continuous  cul- 
ture of  cotton  year  after  year  on  the  same  land  has  been  and 
still  is  in  large  measure  the  common  practise.  (329)  The  fol- 
lowing rotation  is  the  one  best  suited  to  the  largest  number  of 
cases  under  existing  economic  conditions:  first  year,  maize 
with  peas  between  the  rows  to  be  harvested  for  seed ;  second  year, 
wheat  or  oats  followed  by  cowpeas  for  hay  after  the  cereal  crop 
has  been  removed;  third  year,  cotton.  If  more  cotton  is  essen- 
tial, cotton  follows  cotton,  making  a  four-year  rotation.  If 
more  maize  is  wanted,  land  may  be  planted  to  the  crop  two  years 
in  succession  instead  of  two  years  in  cotton. 

After  many  years'  experience  the  Georgia  Station  asserts 
that  the  increased  production  of  the  station  farm  is  due  more 
to  the  adoption  and  maintenance  of  a  regular  system  of  rotation 
than  to  any  other  practise,  and  that  the  recurring  crop  of  cow- 
peas  following  the  small  grain  is  the  most  valuable  and  efficient 
detail  of  the  rotation  system  adopted. 

The  objection  to  the  rotation  above  mentioned  is  that  it 
leaves  the  land  bare  during  the  winter  after  the  cotton.  The 
South  Carolina  Station  recommends  early  varieties  of  cotton 
so  that  the  crop  may  be  gathered  in  time  for  fall  plowing  the 
cotton  field,  and  the  sowing  of  winter  grain.  The  protection  of 
the  soil  by  the  grain  through  the  winter  and  early  spring  this 
station  believes  is  alone  of  sufficient  benefit  to  justify  the  prac- 
tise of  sowing  grain  on  cotton  land  without  taking  into  account 
the  benefit  of  fall  plowing  and  the  value  of  the  grain  crop.^ 

The  practical  difficulties  of  a  grain  crop  at  this  point  in  the 
rotation  will  probably  prevent  its  extended  use.  Cover  crops, 
however,  of  rye,  oats,  winter  vetch,  crimson  clover  or  bur  clover 
may  be  sown  in  the  fall  to  be  plowed  under  not  later  than  Feb- 
ruary first.  A  farmer  is  reported  to  have  increased  the  capacity 
of  his  Piedmont  soil  from  one-third  of  a  bale  to  two  bales  per 
acre  by  growing  bur  clover  on  the  land  each  winter,  the  land 

1  South  Carolina  Sta.  Bui.  No.  120   (1906),  p.  8. 


34^  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

being  continuously  kept  in  cotton.  Since  the  bur  clover  re- 
seeds  itself  each  year,  there  has  been  no  expense  except  for  the 
original  cost  of  the  seed/ 

439.  Influence  of  Commercial  Fertilizers. — "Since  the  close  of  the 
Civil  War  to  the  present  time  practically  all  of  the  cotton  cultivated  in  the 
United  States,  with  the  exception  of  comparatively  small  quantities  grown  on 
the  alluvial  soils  of  great  river  bottoms  and  occasional  areas  of  newly-cleared 
land,  has  been  fertilized  with  concentrated  manures.  Probably  upon  no  other 
crop  to  which  they  have  been  applied  have  these  manures  exercised  so  great 
an  influence  as  upon  cotton.  Not  only  were  profitable  crops  made  with  them 
upon  lands  which  without  them  it  would  not  have  paid  to  cultivate,  and  an 
immense  area  of  worn-out  land  thus  redeemed  to  culture,  but  the  stimulant 
effect  of  the  manure  so  shortened  the  period  of  growth  and  maturity  of  the 
plant  that  the  climatic  limit  of  culture  was  extended.  Cotton  soon  came  to 
be  grown  abundantly  over  large  regions  where,  previous  to  the  introduction 
of  such  manures,  killing  frosts  intervened  before  the  maturity  and  fruitage 
of  the  plant.  The  enormous  increase  in  the  cotton  production  of  the  United 
States  since  1860  is  undoubtedly  to  be  credited  chiefly,  if  not  exclusively,  to 
the  use  of  concentrated  manures."  - 

440.  Carriers  of  Fertilizing  Ingredients. — Kainit  is  the  most 
common  form  for  supplying  potash  to  cotton.  When  it  can  be 
purchased  as  cheaply  compared  with  the  potash  contained,  it  is 
considered  rather  more  desirable  than  the  refined  muriate  of 
potash,  since  the  larger  bulk  and  mechanical  condition  permit 
its  more  even  distribution  by  the  fertilizer  drill. 

Most  of  the  experiment  stations  in  the  cotton  states  have 
compared  nitrate  of  soda  with  cotton-seed  meal  as  a 
carrier  of  nitrogen  for  cotton  and  find  that  they  are 
substantially  equal  pound  for  pound  of  nitrogen  contained 
therein  under  the  conditions  which  they  are  ordinar- 
ily used.  Since  the  cotton-seed  meal  furnishes  the  nitrogen 
at  less  cost,  it  is  generally  recommended  and  used.  The  Georgia 
Station,  however,  recommends  whether  cotton-seed  meal  or 
other  fertilizers  are  used  that  20  to  30  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda 
per  acre  be  used  when  seed  is  planted.  Soluble  and  reverted 
forms  of  phosphoric  acid  seem  to  have  given  better  results  than 

lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook  1905,  p.  202. 

2U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Off.  Expt.  Sta.  Bui.  No.  33  (1896),  p.  172. 


FIBER    CROPS  34/ 

the  phosphorus  occurring  in  rock  phosphates.     The  acid  phos- 
phates are,  therefore,  generally  recommended. 

"While  a  few  of  the  earlier  tests  made  at  Auburn  were  thought  at  the  tima 
to  indicate  the  possibility  of  the  economical  substitution  of  the  cheaper  raw 
phosphate  for  the  most  costly  acidulated  material,  our  hundred  or  more  ex- 
periments bearing  on  this  question,  taken  as  a  whole,  declare  emphatically  that 
under  ordinary  conditions  and  present  prices  it  is  more  profitable  to  fertilize 
cotton  with  acidulated  than  with  raw  phosphate.  When  the  latter  is  employee 
at  all  it  is  best  to  use  in  connection  with  it  some  form  of  organic  nitrogenous 
material  as  stable  manure,  cotton  seed,  or  even  cotton  seed  meal."  ^ 

These  experiments,  however,  have  not  taken  into  account 
the  residual  effect  of  the  rock  phosphate  in  a  well  ordered  sys- 
tem of  rotation. 

441.  Composting. — It  is  a  common  practise  to  mix,  say,  four 
parts  of  horse  manure  with  one  part  each  by  weight  of  cotton 
seed  and  acid  phosphate  and  allow  them  to  ferment  for  four  to 
ten  weeks.  To  this  mixture  there  may  be  added  coarse  litter  of 
any  sort,  such  as  oak  leaves,  pine  needles.  Among  the  things 
accomplished  by  this  process  is  a  product  which  can  be  distrib- 
uted in  the  fertilizer  distributer,  and  the  fermentation  destroys 
the  germinating  power  of  the  seed. 

The  experiments  of  the  Alabama  and  other  stations  do  not  in- 
dicate that  the  process  of  fermentation  increases  the  yield  of 
cotton  compared  to  using  the  same  ingredients  fresh,  and  ap- 
plied early  enough  to  prevent  the  cotton  seed  from  germinating, 
unless  it  be  in  making  available  the  coarse  litter  which  may  be 
employed.  The  chief  consideration,  therefore,  in  determining 
the  desirability  of  composting  fine  stable  manure,  cotton  seed 
and  acid  phosphate  is  convenience  and  cost  of  labor.  Where 
manure  is  available  it  is  considered  desirable  to  mix  with  the 
commercial  fertilizers  and  apply  in  the  furrow  rather  than  to 
apply  broadcast.  When  desired  for  immediate  use  it  may  be 
necessary  to  screen  the  manure  in  order  to  remove  the  coarse 
litter,  which  may  be  done  with  an  ordinary  sand  screen. 

1  Alabama  Sta.  Bui.  No.  107   (1899),  pp.  251,  252. 


348  THE    FORAGE    AND   ElBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

442.  Kinds  and  Quantities  of  Commercial  Fertilizers. — 
The  Texas  Station  recommends  lOO  to  150  pounds  of  cotton-seed 
meal  and  100  to  200  pounds  of  14  per  cent,  acid  phosphate.  This 
station  believes  soils  in  Texas  do  not  require  potash.^  The 
Georgia  Station,  as  the  result  of  fourteen  years'  experiments, 
recommends  for  cotton,  on  old  worn  uplands,  a  fertilizer  con- 
taining nitrogen,  available  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  in  the 
ration  of  3:  10:  3.  This  ratio,  but  not  these  percentages,  may  be 
obtained  by  mixing  1,000  pounds  of  14  per  cent,  acid  phosphate; 
700  pounds  of  cotton-seed  meal  containing  7  per  cent,  nitrogen, 
2.5  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid  and  1.5  per  cent,  of  potash,  and  75 
pounds  of  muriate  potash.^  From  350  to  700  pounds  of  this 
mixture  are  recommended  to  be  bedded  on  two  weeks  before 
planting  with  20  to  30  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  applied  in 
the  furrow  when  seeds  are  planted. 

When  a  well-ordered  rotation  is  practised,  each  crop  being 
liberally  and  judiciously  fertilized,  each  succeeding  cotton  crop 
will  require  a  somewhat  less  relative  quantity  of  nitrogenous 
fertilizers.  On  well  improved  soils,  on  comparatively  new 
soils,  or  on  bottom  lands  the  cotton  seed  may  be  reduced  from 
one-third  to  one-half." 

For  sandy  soils  the  Alabama  Station  recommends  the  same 
mixture  in  amounts  varying  from  280  to  420  pounds  per  acre ; 
for  clay  soils  it  is  advised  to  omit  the  potash  and  apply  from 
240  to  320  pounds  per  acre  of  the  cotton-seed  meal  and  acid 
phosphate  mixture,  while  for  any  well  drained  soils  on  which 
cotton  is  known  to  be  liable  to  black  rust  it  is  advised  to  reduce 
the  phosphate  and  increase  the  potash  by  applying  the  follow- 
ing mixture:  cotton-seed  meal,  120  to  160  pounds;  acid  phos- 
phate, 80  to  120  pounds;  and  kainit,  80  to  120  pounds  per  acre. 
The  lime  soils  of  the  central  prairie  region  of  Alabama  usually 

1  Texas  Sta.  Bui.  No.  75   (1904),  p.  18. 

*  About  2.5  pounds  of  crushed  cotton  seed  are  equivalent  as  a  fertilizer  to  one 
pound   of  cotton-seed   meal. 

•■'Georgia  Sta.  Bui.  No.  70   (1905),  p.  88. 


FIBER   CROPS 


349 


fail  to  make  profitable  use  of  commercial  fertilizers.  For 
these  soils  drainage  and  the  growing  of  leguminous  crops  are 
especially   recommended.^ 

443.  Methods  of  Applying  Commercial  Fertilizers. — Commer- 
cial fertilizers  may  be  applied  in  the  furrow  at  the  time  of 
planting  the  seed,  or  they  may  be  bedded  on  some  time,  say 
two  weeks,  in  advance  of  planting.  It  is  best  not  to  place  the 
fertilizer  in  direct 
contact  with  the 
seed,  especially  if 
considerable  quan- 
tities of  potash  or 
nitrogen  salts  are 
used.  The  ferti- 
lizer may  be  dis- 
tributed by  hand 
with  fertilizer  dis- 
tributer or  with 
the  combined  cotton  seed  planter  and  fertilizer  drill.  When 
large  quantities  of  fertilizer  are  used  a  scooter  plow  may  be  run 
in  the  furrow  to  mix  the  fertilizer  with  the  soil  before  "bed- 
ding on."  When  distributed  by  hand,  the  Texas  Station  recom- 
mends the  tin  bugle,  to  prevent  the  wind  from  interfering. 

"This  device  is  made  of  tin.  It  is  three  feet  long,  and  has  a  diameter 
of  two  inches.  'I  he  top  is  funnel-shaped,  and  may  be  any  convenient  tize 
to  receive  the  fertilizer.  To  one  side  of  the  top  a  handle  is  soldered.  The 
man  distributing  the  fertilizer  carries  the  bugle  in  his  left  hand  with  the 
lower  end  of  the  bugle  in  the  furrow  and  the  funnel  directly  under  the  mouth 
of  a  sack  of  fertilizer  carried  in  the  right  arm.  The  fertilizer  is  run  into 
the  funnel  in  a  constant  stream,  the  right  hand  acting  as  a  check  valve  to 
control  the  passage  of  the  fertilizer  from  the  sack.  Uniformity  and  rapidity 
of  distribution  may  be  secured  after  a  few  hours'  practise."  ^  In  some  cases 
the  bugle  is  carried  by  a  rope  slung  over  the  shoulder  and  fastened  to  rings 
attached  at  suitable  places  on  the  ttibe^ 

When  the  nitrogen  in  the  fertilizer  was  obtained  from  cotton- 

1  Alabama    Sta.   Bui.    No.    107    (1899).   p.   286 
-Texas  Sta.  Bui.  No.  75   (1904),  p.  19. 


Common  form  of  fertilizer  distributer  used  by  cotton  planter 


350  THE    FORAGE   AND   FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

seed  meal  the  Georgia  Station  during  three  years  obtained  slightly 
greater  yields  of  seed  cotton  by  bedding  on  the  fertilizer  two 
weeks  in  advance  of  planting  than  by  applying  it  with  the  seed. 
The  practise  is  to  open  the  center  where  the  row  of  cotton  is  to 
be  with  a  double  mold  board  plow,  locally  called  a  "middle 
buster."  In  this  furrow  the  fertilizer  is  distributed,  after 
which  the  ridges  or  beds  are  formed.  Rather  less  yields  were 
obtained  by  applying  half  the  fertilizers  two  months  after  plant- 
ing, when  the  nitrogen  was  derived  from  cotton-seed  meal,  and 
rather  more  when  nitrogen  was  derived  from  nitrate  of  soda.^ 

The  Alabama  Station  has  not  found  any  greater  yields  from 
fractional  applications  of  fertilizers,  but  when  the  supply  of 
nitrogenous  fertilizers  was  inadequate  at  planting,  nitrate  of 
soda  applied  as  late  as  the  middle  of  July,  and  cotton-seed  meal, 
applied  in  the  latter  part  of  June,  have  produced  favorable  re- 
sults. 

444.  Collateral  Reading. — IT.  C.  White:  The  Manuring  of  Cotton.  In 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bui.  No.  33  (1896),  pp.  169-195. 

1  Georgia  Sta.  Bui.  No.   70    (1905),  p.  77. 


XX 

FIBER  CROPS 

COTTON 

I.    Cultural  Methods 

445.  Seasons  of  Cultural  Operations. — The  time  during  which 
the  several  cultural  operations  connected  with  the  raising  of  cot- 
ton occur  will  depend  somewhat  upon  the  region.  The  cotton 
belt  is  generally  recognized  to  have  somewhat  marked  differ- 
ences depending  on  whether  the  northern,  middle  or  southern 
section  is  considered.  While  these  three  sections  cannot  be 
divided  along  parallels  of  latitude  on  account  of  differences  of 
topography  and  proximity  to  seacoast,  yet,  in  general,  the  section 
north  of  the  thirty-fourth  parallel  may  be  looked  upon  as  the 
northern  section,  while  the  section  south  of  the  thirty-first  par- 
allel may  be  considered  to  be  in  the  southern  section.  The  state- 
ments which  follow  will  be  for  the  middle  section.  South  of 
this  section  the  season  is  lengthened  and  north  of  it  of  course 
shortened. 

The  planter  begins  to  prepare  his  land  for  cotton  in  February 
and  March,  and  plants  the  seed  in  April,  more  rarely  in  May. 
During  May,  June,  and  July  the  crop  is  cultivated,  the  "chop- 
ping out"  season  usually  being  in  June,  but  extending  sometimes 
into  July.  The  plant  begins  to  flower  in  June,  and  its  bolls 
mature  and  open  60  to  90  days  later.  The  plants  continue  to 
bloom  until  September,  and  thus  the  picking  season  ranges  from 
August  until  November.  At  the  Georgia  Station,  during  ten 
years  the  picking  ranged  from  September  2  to  October  3. 

351 


352  THE    FORAGE   AND   FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

446.  Preparing  the  Seed-bed. — The  land  having  been  plowed 
with  an  ordinary  mold  board  or  turn  plow,  the  field  is  made  up 
into  alternate  beds  and  middles  or  into  "back"  furrows  and 
"dead"  furrows.  The  row  of  cotton  is  to  be  planted  upon  the 
back  furrow  while  the  dead  furrow  facilitates  drainage.  On  hilly 
land  these  beds  follow  the  contour  lines  in  order  to  prevent 
erosion.  The  custom  varies  somewhat  with  the  need  for  drain- 
age and  other  conditions,  but  in  general  the  bed  when  finished 

is  about  six  inches 
above  the  general 
level  of  the  land, 
while  the  middle  or 
center  furrow  is 
about  six  inches  be- 
low      the       general 

level,     making     the 
The  "  Middle  Buster "  .  ,  ,,      r 

middle  furrow  about 

twelve  inches  below  the  cotton  row.  There  is  considerable  dif- 
ference of  opinion  as  to  the  necessity  for  this  process  of 
bedding,  but  there  is  practically  no  experimental  evidence  as 
to  when  it  is  desirable  and  when  it  may  be  omitted.  Where 
cotton  follows  cotton,  and  where  the  soil  is  sandy,  the  land  is 
usually  not  plowed  before  the  beds  are  formed.  In  this  case 
the  bed  is  formed  on  the  center  furrow  of  the  preceding  year. 
In  some  cases  the  cotton  plants  are  gathered  and  burned,  and 
in  other  cases  the  stalk  cutter  is  used,  after  which  they  may 
be  plowed  under  without  interfering  with  the  subsequent  cul- 
tivation.    (C.  A.  296) 

The  method  of  preparing  the  bed  is  somewhat  as  follows: 
The  place  where  the  cotton  row  is  to  be  is  opened  by  means  of 
a  sco®ter,  which  is  merely  a  flat  shovel  four  to  five  inches  wide, 
and  about  twelve  inches  long,  or  by  means  of  a  middle  "buster," 
which  is  a  double  mold  board  plow.  The  fertilizer  is  then  placed 
in  this  furrow  and  the  land  turned  back  over  the  fertilizer  by 
means  of  a  small  plow  which  turns  a  furrow  seven  to  eight 


FitiER   CROPS  353 

inches  wide.  Immediately  afterward  or  usually  a  couple  of 
weeks  later,  two  or  more  furrow  slices  are  thrown  upon  the  pre- 
vious ones,  and  the  plowing  continued  until  the  middles  are 
plowed  out. 

Whether  it  is  good  practise  to  permit  an  interval  of  some 
weeks  to  elapse  between  these  operations  is  a  matter  of  doubt. 
The  practise  of  the  Alabama  Station  is  to  complete  the  beds  as 
soon  as  the  fertilizers  are  applied.  Doubtless  on  sandy  soils  it 
is  desirable  to  have  it  completed  some  time  before  planting,  in 
order  that  the  seed-bed  may  be  compact,  while  on  clay  soils, 
if  much  time  intervened  between  the  final  preparation  of  the 
seed-bed  and  planting,  the  soil  would  become  too  compact. 

Sub-soiling  has  been  tried  at  several  stations  without  material 
results  and  the  practise  is  not  advised.  Breaking  the  soil  six  to 
eight  inches,  and  giving  this  layer  thorough  preparation,  is  con- 
sidered better  than  deeper  plowing,  with  less  preparation.  The 
results  of  experiments  on  the  preparation  of  the  seed-bed  vary 
greatly,  and  generally  are  inconclusive. 

The  furrows  are  sometimes  opened  in  the  fall.  While  this 
plan  did  not  increase  the  yield  of  cotton,  the  Georgia  Station 
believes  that  this  method  of  opening  deep  furrows  in  the  fall 
of  the  year  may  be  expedient  in  practise  as  a  means  of  pre- 
venting winter  washing  and  the  leaching  of  the  soil  on  hillside 
farms.^  The  fall  preparation  of  the  soil  for  cotton  is  seldom  prac- 
tised, and  as  ordinarily  performed  would  increase  erosion.  In 
level  sections,  as  in  parts  of  Texas,  fall  plowing  is  sometimes 
successfully  practised. 

447.  Kind  of  Seed. — There  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  larger 
seeds  of  any  given  variety  will  usually  give  the  more  vigorous 
start  to  the  plant,  and  are  to  be  preferred.  Experiments  in  using 
heavy  seeds  as  compared  to  light  seeds  indicate  that  the  yield 
of  seed  cotton  may  be  materially  increased  by  planting  only 

1  Georgia  Sta.  Bui.  No.  70   (1905),  p.  80. 


354  THE    FORAGE    AND   FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

heavy  seeds.  It  has  been  suggested  that  it  is  desirable  to  plant 
old  seed,  on  the  theory  that  in  old  seeds  the  poorer  ones  fail  to 
germinate,  and  by  this  process  the  seeds  capable  of  producing 
the  best  plants  will  be  selected.  The  Alabama  Station,  however, 
found  that  there  was  no  difference  in  the  yield  of  cotton  due  to 
the  age  of  seed,  when  the  same  number  of  plants  were  grown  per 
acre.  The  seed  used  for  planting  should  be  selected  as  hereto- 
fore described.     (426) 

The  mixing  of  the  seed  of  an  early  and  of  a  medium  variety 
has  been  recommended  on  the  theory  that  it  distributes  the  time 
of  most  vigorous  growth,  and  therefore  the  demand  upon  soil 
over  a  longer  period  of  time.  This  method  seems  to  produce 
somewhat  higher  yields  where  both  varieties  are  equally  pro- 
ductive when  planted  separately,  but  if  one  variety  was  much 
less  productive  than  the  other  the  yield  would  be  less  than  if 
the  more  productive  one  only  had  been  planted.^ 

In  order  to  carry  on  this  practise  it  will  be  necessary  to  pur- 
chase seed  from  someone  who  grows  seed  pure,  or  else  maintain 
a  field  of  each  pure  for  the  purpose  of  selecting  seed  in  addition  to 
the  field  containing  the  mixed  crop.  The  practise  of  maintain- 
ing fields  of  both  varieties  for  the  producing  of  seed  for  planting 
is  desirable  in  order  that  the  planter  may  know  that  the  yields 
of  both  varieties  are  substantially  equal. 

448.  Quantity  of  Seed. — The  custom  in  the  past  has  been  to 
plant  an  enormous  amount  of  seed,  generally  from  one  to  three 
bushels  per  acre.  Since  a  bushel  may  contain  from  100,000  to 
200,000  seeds,  the  number  of  seeds  might  vary  from  100,000  to 
600,000  per  acre,  while  the  number  of  plants  finally  left  to  bear 
fruit  do  not  ordinarily  exceed  12,000,  and  frequently  less. 
The  excess  of  seed  forms  a  valuable  fertilizer.  With  the  bet- 
ter care  in  the  selection  of  seed  and  the  greater  demand 
for  the  surplus  seed,  the  practise  is  gradually  obtaining  to  plant 

1  Georgia  Sta.  Bui.  No.  63   (1903),  p.  112. 


FIBER    CROPS 


355 


less  and  better  seed,  sell  the  surplus  seed  to  the  cotton  mills  and 
use  cotton-seed  meal  as  a  fertilizer. 

The  seed  is  planted  by  means  of  a  one-horse  cotton  drill,  or 
more  rarely  by  means  of  the  two-horse  maize  planter  adjusted 
for  cotton.  (C.  A.  305)  Experiments  are  also  being  conducted 
by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  and  others  of 
rolling  the  cotton  seed  in  a  mixture  of  gypsum  and  flour  to 
paste  the  fuzz  to  the  seed 
in  order  that  the  seed  may 
be  planted  in  hills  with 
an  ordinary  maize  planter. 
It  is  considered  a  good 
practise,  especially  on 
sandy,  friable  soils,  to 
compact  the  furrow  above 
the    seed   by   means   of   a 

heavy     roller     attached     to       improved  cotton  drill  with  fertilizer  attachment 

the  drill  or  otherwise. 

449.  Distance. — Experiments  seem  clearly  to  prove  that  cot- 
ton plants  should  be  thinned  to  one  in  a  place.  The  width  of 
rows  may  vary  from  2.5  to  5  feet,  depending  on  the  variety,  the 
soil  and  the  latitude.  While  the  expense  would  be  less  for  plant- 
ing and  cultivation  with  larger  widths  of  rows,  making  less  rows 
to  plant,  hoe,  and  cultivate,  yet  experiments  indicate  that  the  best 
yields  are  obtained  with  rows  relatively  narrow  and  the  plants 
wider  apart  in  the  row,  so  as  to  make  them  more  equidistant. 

The  results  of  the  Georgia  and  the  Alabama  stations  indicate 
that  for  land  capable  of  yielding  0.75  to  1.5  bales  of  cotton 
per  acre  the  rows  should  be  3.5  to  4  feet  wide  and  the  plants 
12  to  18  inches  apart  in  the  drills,  the  narrow  rows  and 
closer  spacing  for  the  less  productive  soil,  more  northern  sec- 
tions and  smaller  growing  varieties.  For  exceptional  soils  pro- 
ducing large  cotton  plants  requiring  more  than  ten  square  feet 


35^  THE    FORAGE   AND   FIBER   CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

each,  4,  4.5  and  even  5  feet,  with  a  space  of  not  more  than  three 
feet  in  the  row,  are  recommended.^ 

With  cotton,  as  with  the  cereals,  the  experiments  indicate 
that  the  plant  has  great  power  of  adjustment,  the  total 
yield  of  cotton  per  acre  being  often  but  slightly  different  when 
two  and  even  three  times  the  number  of  plants  are  raised  per 
acre,  the  yield  per  plant  being  thus  greatly  modified  on  account 
of  the  thickness  of  planting.  The  width  apart  of  the  cotton 
is  perhaps  largely  influenced  by  the  fact  that  the  chopping 
hoe  is  seven  inches  wide  and  two  strokes  with  the  hoe  would 
leave  a  space  of  12  to  14  inches  between  plants. 

450.  Cultivation. — Since  the  season  of  growth  is  some- 
what longer  and  the  cotton  is  always  planted  in  drills,  the 
amount  of  inter-cultural  tillage  is  somewhat  greater  than  with 
maize.  It  is  customary  to  hoe  one  to  three  times,  including 
chopping  out,  which  is  thinning  the  plants  with  a  hoe  to  one  ©r 
more  plants  to  a  place.  At  the  same  time  the  space  between  the 
rows  is  cultivated  three  to  six  times.  A  general  rule  is  about 
once  in  ten  days  until  the  limbs  hide  the  ground. 

Usually  no  cultivation  is  given  after  cotton  is  planted  until 
the  plants  are  four  to  six  inches  high,  which  will  be  two  to 
four  weeks  after  planting,  according  to  weather,  soil  conditions, 
and  seed.  The  rows  are  then  ''barred  off,"  which  consists  of 
throwing  a  small  furrow  away  from  the  row  with  a  one-horse 
turning  plow  or  with  a  scooter  plow.  This  leaves  the  plants  on 
a  narrow  ridge  The  cotton  is  then  chopped  out,  after  which  the 
rows  are  "four  furrowed,"  which  consists  in  going  twice  around 
each  row  and  throwing  the  earth  toward  the  plants. 

The  more  rapidly  these  operations  follow  each  other  the  bet- 
ter, especially  on  soils  likely  to  suffer  from  drought.  After  this 
the  soil  is  best  stirred  with  some  form  of  surface  cultivating  tool, 
which   may  vary   from   the   single   heel   scrape,   ranging   from 

1  Alabama  Sta.  Bui.  No.  107  (1899),  p.  223;  Georgia  Sta.  Bui.  No.  66  (1903), 
p.   125. 


FIBER   CROPS  357 

eighteen  to  thirty  inches  in  width,  and  attached  to  a  Georgia 
stock,  to  the  cultivator  with 
five  comparatively  small 
shovels.  In  any  case  the 
cultivation  should  not  go 
deeper  than  is  necessary  for 
effective  eradication  of  the 
weeds.  In  Texas,  the  cul- 
tural methods  are  not  unlike 

,  -  .  ,  ...  Georgia  stock  with  different  types  of  shovels 

those  for  maize  where  listnig  ^3^^  in  cultivating  cotton 

is  practised.     (C.  A.  301) 

In  Alabama  a  single  deep  cultivation  at  the  second  cultivation, 
all  others  being  shallow,  decreased  the  yield  of  seed  cotton  85 
pounds  on  prairie  soil  and  105  pounds  on  sandy  soil.  There 
appears  to  be  no  advantage  in  late  cultivation  unless  made  neces- 
sary by  the  growth  of  weeds.  It  is  possible  that  late  cultivation 
may  be  in  some  cases  injurious  by  inducing  increased  gfowth 
of  plant,  or  as  the  planters  say,  weed,  and  a  corresponding  de- 
crease in  fruiting. 

451.  Topping. — Sometimes  the  extreme  top  of  the  cotton 
plant  is  removed  late  in  the  summer,  with  the  idea  of  checking 
the  growth  of  the  plants  and  inducing  a  greater  development  of 
bolls.  Tests  at  several  stations  fail  to  show  any  advantage  in 
this  operation. 

452.  Picking. — Thus  far  cotton  is  picked  almost  exclusively 
by  hand,  although  several  machines  have  been  invented  and 
tried  for  this  purpose.  One  of  the  several  difficulties  involved 
in  producing  a  successful  picking  machine  is  the  fact  that  the 
successive  ripening  of  the  bolls  necessitates  several  pickings, 
and  the  passage  of  a  machine  over  the  fields  injures  the  plants 
more  or  less  extensively. 

Cotton  is  picked  by  men,  women  and  children,  payment  usually 
being  made  by  the  pound,  ordinarily  forty  cents  per  hundred 


35<^  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

pounds  of  seed  cotton,  but  may  vary  from  thirty-five  to  sixty 
cents,  and  in  some  instances  to  one  dollar  per  hundredweight. 
Since  it  takes  about  1,500  pounds  of  seed  cotton  to  each  bale  of 
500  pounds,  the  cost  of  picking  per  bale  is  about  six  dollars. 
Two  large  items  of  expense  in  cotton  culture  are  the  picking 
and  the  chopping  out,  for  both  of  which  it  is  difficult  to  substi- 
tute machinery  for  hand  labor. 

The  number  of  pickings  will  vary  somewhat  with  the  condi- 
tions, but  perhaps  four  pickings  are  the  most  common  number. 
The  first  picking  usually  occurs  in  the  latter  part  of  August 
and  the  last  picking  in  the  fore  part  of  November.  The  largest 
yield  and  best  quality  of  lint  are  obtained  at  the  second  pick- 
ing, and  the  least  at  the  fourth  picking.  In  general,  about  half 
the  yield  of  seed  cotton  is  obtained  at  the  second  picking. 

II.    Insects 

453.  Insects. — There  have  been  enumerated  465  species  of  in- 
sects which  feed  upon  the  cotton  plant.^  Of  these  the  following 
are  the  most  destructive: 

1.  The  Mexican  cotton-boll  weevil   (Anthonomus  grandis  Boh.). 

2.  The  cotton  boUworm   {Heliothis  armiger  Hiibn.). 

3.  The  cotton  worm  or  cotton  caterpillar   (Aletia  argillacea  Hiibn.). 

4.  Cutworms  (Noctuidae). 

The  Mexican  cotton-boll  weevil  and  the  cotton  worm  are  not 
known  to  feed  upon  any  other  plant  than  cotton.  The  cotton 
bollworm  is  the  same  species  as  the  corn  ear  worm  which  attacks 
maize,  tomatoes  and  many  other  crops.  (C.  A.  335)  In  the 
south,  where  it  is  about  five  brooded,  the  first  three  broods  usu- 
ally feed  upon  maize  and  the  last  two  upon  cotton.  The  Mexican 
cotton-boll  weevil  is  a  beetle,  the  others  are  moths.  All  are  in- 
jurious in  the  larval  state. 

1  L.  O.  Howard:  Insects  Affecting  the  Cotton  Plant:  Farmers'  P.ul.  No.  47, 
p.   31. 


FIBER    CROPS 


359 


Map  showing  the  distribution  of  the  cotton- 
boll  weevil  up  to  1 905 


As  in  the  case  of  cereal  crops,  the  most  practicable  method 
of  combating  in  a  large  way  insects  injurious  to  cotton  are  a 
rotation  of  crops,  thorough  cultivation  and  general  cleanliness 
of  surroundings,  which  prevents  the  successful  hibernation  of 
the  insects  and  de- 
creases their  opportu- 
nity for  getting  sus- 
tenance from  volun- 
teer plants.  Cut- 
worms are  sometimes 
destructive  by  cutting 
off  the  young  cotton 
plants.  Trapping  with 
poisoned  green  vege- 
tation such  as  grass  or  cabbage  placed  here  and  there  through 
the  field  has  been  found  effective.     (C.  A.  329) 

454.  The  Mexican  Cotton-boll  Weevil  has  gradually  been  spreading 
northward  throughout  Texas  until  at  the  present  time  it  has  spread  over  much 
of  the  cotton  belt  of  Texas.  The  adult  is  a  small  grayish  weevil  less  than  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  in  length  while  the  larva  which  does  the  damage  is  nearly 
when  full  grown  of  equal  length.  The  insects  pass  the  winter  in  the  adult 
state.  In  the  spring  they  lay  their  eggs  upon  the  buds,  and  later  upon  the 
bolls  of  the  cotton  plant,  into  which  the  larvae  upon  hatching  bore  and  feed. 
It  is  a  rule  that  buds  which  are  attacked  drop  off  while  the  bolls  do  not. 
In  either  case  the  injury  is  complete.  There  are  a  number  of  generations  in 
a  season,  about  two  weeks  being  required  for  development  from  egg  to  adult, 
hence  the  injury  is  greatest  in  the  latter  part  of  the  season  and  upon  the 
later  maturing  plants.  It  is  estimated  that  the  progeny  of  a  single  pair  in  a 
season  may  amount  to    134   million   individuals.^ 

The  method  of  combating  this  pest  consists  in  reducing  the  number  of 
insects  in  the  fall  by  the  early  destruction  of  the  plants,  and  in  hastening 
the  maturity  of  the  plant  by  all  available  means,  such  as  early  planting,  using 
early  varieties  or  northern  grown  seed,  use  of  fertilizers,  thorough  cultivation 
and  proper  spacing  of  plants.  The  plants  should  be  plowed  up  in  the  fall 
as  early  as  the  crop  will  permit,  and  burned.  In  some  cases  pasturing  with 
cattle  may  be  effective.  Each  season's  infection  is  more  or  less  local  since 
the  adults  do  not  travel  rapidly,  hence  the  measures  above  proposed  are  of 
value    even    though    neighboring    planters    ao    not    practise    them.      While    care 


U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook  1903,  p.  205. 


360  Till::    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  introduction  of  this  pest  into  non-infected 
districts  by  means  of  seeds,  hulls  and  other  cotton  products,  yet  the  principal 
means  of  spreading  seem  to  be  the  wind  and  the  natural  overflow  from  the 
infested   area. 

45S.  CoTTON-BOLL  WoRM. — This  insect,  also  known  as  the  corn-ear  worm, 
and  as  the  tomato-fruit  worm,  feeds  when  young  upon  the  leaves  of  the  cotton, 
but,  as  it  grows  older,  feeds  upon  the  bolls  and  burrows  into  them,  one  insect 


Cotton-boll  weevil.    Mature  boll  cut  open  at  left,  showing  full  grown  larva;  at 

right  late  fall  boll  showing  how  beetles  hide  between  the  boll  and  the  squares 

(From  photo  by  Howard) 

sometimes  destroying  many  buds,  blossoms,  and  bolls.  The  insect  hibernates 
in  the  pupa  stage,  and  feeds  upon  many  wild  and  cultivated  plants,  many  of 
which  it  prefers  to  cotton.  No  thoroughly  satisfactory  method  of  combating 
this  insect  has  been  devised.  The  young  larvae  may  be  poisoned  while  they 
are  feeding  upon  the  leaves  by  the  method  described  for  the  cotton  worm, 
but  this  will  not  destroy  the  larvae  after  they  have  entered  the  bolls.  Since 
they  prefer  other  crops,  and  especially  maize  to  cotton,  the  growing  of  five 
rows  of  maize  between  every  twenty-five  rows  of  cotton  has  been  suggested. 
The  rows  of  maize  are  planted  at  different  times  so  as  to  bring  on  a  suc- 
cession of  the  silking  period,  and  each  row  or  group  of  rows  is  to  be  fed  to 
live  stock  or  otherwise  destroyed  just  before  or  just  after  the  eggs  hatch. 
(C.  A.   355) 

456.  Cotton  Worm. — The  larva  of  this  insect  resembles  in  appearance  the 
cotton-boll  worm,  although  generally  of  a  lighter  and  more  greenish  color,  and 
like  it  walks  as  a  measuring  worm.  This  insect,  however,  differs  in  habits  in 
three  important  particulars:  (1)  so  far  as  known  it  feeds  upon  no  other 
plant;  (2)  it  feeds  principally  upon  the  leaves  of  the  plant,  and  never  burrows 
into  the  bolls;  (3)  it  hibernates  in  the  adult  or  moth  form,  and  cannot  live 
over  winter,  except  in  the  extreme  southern  portion  of  the  cotton  belt.  If  these 
worms  appear  north  of  this  section,  they  occur  by  reinfection  each  season. 
Their  spread  can  be  greatly  retarded  by  preventing  the  growth  of  any  volunteer 


FIBER   CROPS  361 

cotton,  while  the  worms  can  be  effectively  poisoned  by  dusting  dry  undiluted 
paris  green  upon  the  cotton.  The  cotton  worm  in  recent  years  has  not  been 
especially  destructive,  and  the  method  of  poisoning  is  not  so  common  as 
formerly. 

"Make  two  sacks  of  heavy  cloth,  each  about  10  inches  long  and  4  in 
diameter,  open  the  whole  length  of  one  side  and  firmly  sewed  at  the  ends. 
We  have  found  8-ounce  Osnaburg  the  best  cloth  for  the  purpose.  Take  a 
strip  of  oak  or  other  strong  wood,  about  1.5  by  2  inches  and  5  feet  long,  and 
bore  a  1-inch  hole  5  inches  from  the  end.  Tack  one  of  the  sacks  to  each 
end  of  the  pole,  fastening  one  of  the  edges  of  the  opening  to  each  of  the 
narrow  sides  of  the  pole. 

"The  sacks  can  be  filled  by  pouring  the  poison  through  a  funnel  insertec 
in  the  holes  through  the  pole,  and  distributed  by  riding  on  horseback  through 
the  cotton  rows,  dusting  two  rows  at  a  time.  A  little  practise  will  enable 
one  to  do  this  work  very  evenly,  and  care  must  be  taken  not  to  allow  the 
sacks  to  touch  the  leaves  when  wet  or  the  poison  will  not  pass  through. 
When  the  sacks  are  freshly  filled  a  very  slight  jarring  will  shake  out  a  suf- 
ficient amount  of  the  poison,  but,  when  nearly  empty,  the  pole  should  be 
frequently  and  sharply  struck  with  a  short  stick,  or  spaces  in  the  rows  will 
be  missed. 

"When  used  in  this  way  we  have  found  it  the  best  plan  to  use  the  poison 
without  any  admixture  of  flour,  and  if  flour  is  to  be  added  lighter  cloth  should 
be  used  in  making  the  sacks.  With  a  pole  and  sacks  as  described,  one  man 
and   mule  can   poison   from    15    to   20   acres   per   day." '^ 

III.    Fungous  Diseases 

457.  Diseases. — The  cotton  plant  is  subject  to  a  considerable 
number  of  diseases,  some  of  which  do  widespread  damage. 
While  Texas  has  suffered  greatly  from  insect  attacks,  fungous 
diseases  seem  thus  far  to  have  done  their  greatest  damage  in 
the  states  east  of  the  Mississippi  River,  especially  in  the  lower, 
more  humid  and  sandy  sections  of  these  states.  The  following 
are  the  most  important  diseases  arranged  according  to  the 
part  of  the  plant  which  they  most  obviously  affect : " 

THE    ROOTS    AND    STEMS 

1.  Cotton  wilt  or  frenching  (Neocosmospora  vasinfecta  (Atk.)   E.  F.  Smith). 

2.  Root  knot  or  root  galls   (Heterodera  radicicola   (Greef.)    Muell.). 

1  Mississippi  Sta.  Bui.  No.   12   (1890),  pp.  2,  3. 

2F.  S.  Earle:  Diseases  of  Cotton;  in  Alabama  Sta.  Bui.  No.  107(1899), 
p.  289. 


2fi)2  THE   FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

3.  Sore  shin  or  damping  off    (RhicoctoHta). 

4.  Anthracnose  1    {Colletotriclmm   gossypii   South.). 

5.  Root  rot   {Osonium  Sp.). 

LEAVES 

6.  Rust,  black  rust  or  mosaic  disease    (Macrosporiutn  nigricantiutn  -:\tk.). 

7.  Red  rust  (Tetranychus  telarius). 

8.  Leaf  blight    (Cercospora  gossypina   Cke.). 

9.  Cotton  mildew   (Ramularia  areola  Atk.). 

458.  Root  Knot  is  due  to  the  same  nematode  worm  that  causes  the  root 
knot  on  cowpeas.  (319)  Red  rust  is  due  to  a  minute  mite  resembling 
the  so-called  red  spider  of  greenhouses,  while  the  other  diseases  above  men- 
tioned are  due  to  mycelium-bearing  fungi.  In  addition  to  these  diseases  there 
are  the  angular  leaf  spot,  and  the  cotton-boll  rot,  the  causes  for  which  have 
not  been  determined,  although  probably  bacterial.  The  shedding  of  bolls  is 
also  believed  to  be  due  to  causes  other  than  insect  attacks.  The  most 
destructive  diseases  are  the  cotton  wilt,  root  knot,  black  rust,  and  anthracnose. 
Sore  shin  or  damping  off  destroys  many  plants,  but  owing  to  the  habit  of  heavy 
seeding  and  subsequent  thinning  it  does  not  ordinarily  produce  serious  loss. 
No  specific  remedies  have  been  found  for  any  of  these  diseases. 

459.  Cotton  Wilt. — "The  wilt  is  very  distinct  from  any  other  disease 
of  cotton,  so  that  there  need  be  no  difficulty  in  its  identification.  It  usually 
makes  its  first  appearance  in  the  spring  about  the  last  of  May,  when  the  plants 
are  6  to  8  inches  high.  It  appears  in  well-defined  areas,  which  enlarge  if 
cotton  is  planted  on  the  same  land  again.  The  first  outward  indication  of  its 
presence  is  a  dwarfed  growth  and  unhealthy  appearance  of  the  plants.  The 
leaves  turn  yellow  between  the  veins,  their  margins  shrivel  up,  and  some 
plants  wilt  and  die  at  once.  In  other  plants  the  progress  of  the  disease  is 
often  slow,  and  many  of  them  live  the  entire  summer  and  die  late  in  the 
season.  On  cutting  across  the  stem  of  a  diseased  plant,  the  woody  part  will 
be  found  to  be  stained  brown  wherever  the  disease  is  present.  In  the  absence 
of  microscopic  examinations,  this  brown  discoloration  of  the  internal  tissue  is 
the  best  ocular  evidence  of  the  presence  of  the  wilt  disease. 

"Plants  may  partially  recover  from  a  severe  attack  of  the  wilt  disease  by 
the  development  of  strong  lateral  branches  near  the  ground.  Such  plants 
may  be  distinguished  by  their  dwarfed  and  bushy  appearance,  and  by  the 
tendency  of  their  branches  to  lie  prostrate  on  the  ground."  - 

The  fungus  does  its  damage  by  entering  the  smaller  roots,  and  subsequently 
by  its  growth,  filling  up  the  water  ducts  with  its  mycelium,  and  thus  cutting 
off  the  supply  of  plant  food.  The  wilt  disease  of  okra  is  supposed  to  be  due 
to  the  same  fungus,  but  that  of  cowpea  is  supposed  to  be  slightly  different. 
The  infection  is  known  to  remain  in  the  soil  for  four  years,  and  probably 
longer,    hence    rotation    of    crops    is    of    little    avail    after    a    field    has    become 

1  Also  seriously  attacks  bolls. 

3U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Div.  Veg.  Phys.  and  Path.  Bui.  No.  27  (1900),  p.  6. 


FIBER    CROPS  363 

infested.  The  most  effective  method  of  combating  is  believed  to  be  the 
breeding  of  resistant  varieties.  This  is  done  by  saving  seed  from  the  few 
plants  which  have  survived  a  serious  attack  of  the  disease.  These  seeds  are 
again  planted  in  badly  infested  soil.  By  planting  and  selecting  for  several 
years  varieties  of  sea  island  and  upland  cotton  have  been  produced  by  the 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  which  show  a  high  degree  of  immunity  to  the 
disease.^ 

460.  Black  Rust. — The  attack  of  the  fungus  causes  the  premature  falling 
of  the  leaves,  thus  preventing  the  proper  maturity  of  the  plant.  Losses  may 
vary  from  5  to  SO  per  cent.,  and  being  widely  distributed  the  losses  are  very 
heavy.  "It  may  be  safely  asserted  that  this  disease  cannot  attack  a  cotton 
plant  that  is  in  full  vigorous  growth,  but  that  a  sudden  checking  of  growth 
and  lowering  of  vitality  from  any  cause  will  render  it  liable  to  serious  injury 
if  the  weather  conditions  favor  the  growth  of  these  fungi."  2  The  application 
of  potash  salts  has  been  found  in  some  cases  to  have  a  marked  effect  in 
enabling  the  plant  to  resist  rust.     (442) 

461.  Anthracnose. — This  disease  attacks  the  plant  in  all  stages  of  growth. 
It  produces  death  to  the  young  seedling  much  as  in  the  case  of  anthracnose 
of  field  beans.  (270)  It  causes  the  bark  of  the  stems  to  turn  to  a  uniform 
reddish-brown,  and  to  die.  The  leaves  turn  yellow  and  drop  off.  It  is  most 
conspicuously  injurious  to  the  bolls,  which,  when  approaching  maturity,  may 
lose  their  green  color  and  assume  especially  on  the  side  exposed  to  the  sun 
a  dull  red  or  bronze  color.  Under  favorable  conditions  for  the  fungus  the 
characteristic  ulcers  may  appear,  but  in  many  cases  neither  stems  nor  bolls 
show  them.  Affected  bolls  may  open  normally  and  without  material  damage, 
but  usually  they  open  prematurely,  exposing  the  immature  lint  which  decays. 
The  disease  is  not  usually  distinguished  from  rust,  and  is  not  usually  recog- 
nized, but  it  causes  in  the  aggregate  considerable  damage.  The  remedies  sug- 
gested are  burning  of  refuse,  planting  seed  from  unaffected  plants  or  the 
treatment  of  the  seed  with  a  fungicide.  If  such  seed  were  planted  on  land 
in  affected  cotton  the  previous  year,  the  treatment  would  probably  be  of 
little  value. 

462.  Collateral  Reading. — C.  W.  Burkett  and  C.  H.  Poe:  Cotton,  pp. 
153-164.      New   York:    Doubleday,   Page  &   Co.,    1906. 

J.  F.  Duggar:  Preparation  and  Cultivation  of  the  Soil  for  Cotton.  In 
Alabama  Sta.  Bui.  No.   107   (1899),  pp.  215-224. 

lU.   S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook  1902,  p.  383. 
3  Alabama  SU.  Bui.  No.  107  (1899),  p.  302. 


XXI 


FIBER  CROPS 

COTTON 

Production  and  Marketing 

463.  Cotton  Crop  of  the  World. — The  following  table  shows 
the  number  of  bales  of  lint  produced  by  continents  in  1904: 

Continents  Bales  ^ 

North   America 13,565,992 

Asia 4,752,015 

Africa              1,346,126 

South  America 216,204 

Europe 17,125 

Oceania          .         « 137 

Total         .         .         19,897,599 

Almost  all  the  cotton  produced  in  Africa  comes  from  Egypt, 
most  of  that  produced  in  Asia  from  British  India  and  southern 
China,  although  a  not  inconsiderable  amount  is  produced  in  Rus- 
sian central  Asia;  while  ten  states  of  the  United  States  produce 
nearly  all  of  the  cotton  of  North  America,  although  Mexico 
also  produces  some  cotton.  Brazil  and  Peru  are  the  principal 
cotton  producing  countries  of  South  America,  The  ten  cotton 
states  of  the  United  States  in  the  order  of  their  acreage  in  1905 
were  Texas,  Georgia,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  South  Carolina, 
Arkansas,  Louisiana,  Oklahoma,"  North  Carolina,  and  Tennessee. 
Over  three-fourths  the  acreage  was  in  the  first  five  named  states. 

464.  Cotton  in  the  United  States. — The  acreage  in  cotton  in 
the  United  States  is  exceeded  only  by  maize,  hay,  wheat  and 

1  Bales  of  500  pounds  gross  weight,  or  478  pounds  of  lint  net. 

2  Includes  Indian  Territory, 

364 


FIBER    CROPS 


365 


oats,  and  constitutes  about  one-twelfth  the  total  area  in  all  field 
and  garden  crops,  pasture  excepted.  The  maximum  acreage  for 
a  single  year  was  a  little  over  thirty  millions  in  1904.  Accord- 
ing to  the  twelfth  census  the  area  in  cotton  and  maize  in  the 
ten  principal   cotton   states  was   about  the  same,   maize  being 


Percentage  of  the  Improved  farm  land  In  cotton  In  1 899 

slightly  in  the  lead.  These  two  crops  constituted  81  per  cent,  of 
the  area  in  all  crops  in  the  ten  cotton  states,  pasture  excepted. 
The  average  annual  production  of  cotton  for  the  four  crop 
years  of  1902  to  1905  inclusive,  compared  with  the  four  corres- 
ponding crop  years  of  the  previous  decade  has  been,  according 
to  the  estimates  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
as  follows: 


Cotton   statistics 

1892-95 

1902-05 

Area,  acres 

20,366,420 

25,325,472 

Yield,  bales,   500  lbs.  gross     . 

7,828,132 

11,123,776 

Value,   dollars 

271,047,709 

529,030,192 

Yield   per  acre,   lbs 

185 

210 

Price  per  pound,   cents  .... 

7.3 

9.9 

Value   per  acre 

$13.51 

$20.79 

These  figures  show  an  enormous  development  in  the  cotton 
industry  in  a  decade,  not  so  much  in  the  area  under  cultivation 


366 


THE   FORAGE   AND   FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


as  in  the  increased  yield  per  acre  and  the  increased  price  per 
pound,  resulting  in  the  total  value  of  the  crop  in  four  recent 
years  being  nearly  twice  that  of  the  corresponding  years  ten 
years  earlier,  while  the  value  per  acre  increased  over  50  per 
cent.  The  figures  here  given  do  not  show  by  any  means  the 
value  of  the  cotton  plant  to  the  United  States,  since  it  forms  the 
basis  of  a  great  manufacturing  industry  employing  vast  capital 
and  many  people. 


COTTON 
conmercial 

bales  in      ^ 


465.  Center  of  Cotton  Production. — During  the  last  half  of 
the  last  century  the  center  of  cotton  production  has  moved  al- 
most due  westward 
about  200  miles.  In 
1850  the  center  of 
popuLATioA/  production  was  28 
Z/nons:  miles  southwest  of 
Birmingham,  Ala- 
bama, while  fifty 
years  later  it  was  34 
miles  north  by  west 
of  Jackson,  Missis- 
sippi (90°  18'  12" 
W.  Long,  and  32°  57'  39''  N.  Lat.).  During  this  period  maize 
moved  westward  480  miles,  so  that  at  the  present  time  the 
centers  of  production  are  on  nearly  the  same  meridian,  although 
that  of  cotton  is  about  440  miles  farther  south. 


/ 

/ 

/- 

/ 

/ 

. 

/ 

/■ 

^'' 

/ 

' 

/ 

\ 

"/ 

/' 

/ 

,-- 

K 

/ 

/- 

' 

L 

Diagram  showing  the  increase  in  the  production  of  cotton 
in  the  United  States  compared  to  population 


466.  Production  per  Population. — There  were  produced  in 
1899  about  59  pounds  of  lint  cotton  per  inhabitant.  In  1859 
there  were  produced  78  pounds  of  lint  cotton  per  inhabitant. 
This  appears  to  be  the  highest  production  of  cotton,  in  propor- 
tion to  population,  in  the  history  of  the  country.  Owing  to  the 
unsettled  condition  of  the  southern  states  during  the  decade 
which  followed,  the  production  of  cotton  fell  enormously.    Since 


FIBER   CROPS  367 

1870  there  has  been  a  gradual  rise  in  the  production  of  cotton, 
in  proportion  to  population. 

467.  Exports  of  Cotton. — Beginning  with  1875  the  percent- 
age which  agricultural  products  formed  of  the  total  domestic 
exports  has  undergone  a  continuous  decrease;  in  1875  it  was 
yy  per  cent,  while  in  1905  it  was  55  per  cent.  While  the  value 
of  exports  of  agricultural  products  has  become  relatively  less 
in  recent  years,  the  actual  value  of  such  exports  has  not  de- 
creased. In  the  ten  years,  1896- 1905,  the  exports  of  agriculture 
increased  50  per  cent.,  those  of  the  mines,  the  forests  and  the 
fisheries  more  than  100  per  cent,  each,  while  those  of  manu- 
factures increased  practically  200  per  cent.^  The  export  of  raw 
cotton  has  increased  more  rapidly  than  that  of  all  other  agricul- 
tural products.  On  the  other  hand,  the  export  of  raw  cotton  has 
decreased  in  proportion  to  production.  For  the  five  years,  1891  to 
1895  inclusive,  5,473,000  bales  of  domestic  cotton  were  exported, 
which  was  68  per  cent,  of  the  total  production,  while  in  the  cor- 
responding five  years  ten  years  later  7,097,000  bales  were  ex- 
ported, being  55  per  cent,  of  the  total  production.  This  indi- 
cates an  enormous  growth  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton. 

More  than  95  per  cent,  of  this  trade,  including  sea  island  and 
upland  cotton,  went  to  Europe;  3.8  per  cent,  went  to  Japan 
and  British  North  America  in  the  proportion  of  3:2  respectively, 
while  the  remainder  went  chiefly  to  Mexico.  Great  Britain  was 
the  chief  buyer,  while  other  important  countries  were,  respect- 
ively, Germany,  France,  Italy  and  Spain.^ 

The  table  on  next  page  gives  the  exportation  of  raw  cotton 
from  the  United  States  by  customs  districts  for  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1905.' 

1  Dept.  Com.  and  Labor,  The  Foreign  Commerce  and  Navigation  of  the 
United  States,  1905,  p.  17. 

2  Dept.  Com.  and  Labor,  Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States,  1905, 
p.   392. 

^  Dept.  Com.  and  Labor,  The  Foreign  Commerce  and  Navigation  of  the 
United   States,   1905,  p.  779. 


368 


THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


Districts 


Atlantic  ports      .... 

Gulf   ports 

Mexican  border  ports 

Pacific  ports  .... 

Northern   border  and  lake   ports 


Bales 


2,883,545 

4,999,796 

37,807 

307,428 

109,388 


Pounds 


1,463,315,224 

2,602,715,603 

19,570,868 

164,093,478 

55,153,730 


Dollars 


133,524,576 
222,690,144 

1,992,648 
16,607,020 

5,150,626 


Sea  island  cotton,  42,721  bales,  went  out  of  Atlantic  ports  ex- 
clusively. More  than  95  per  cent,  of  the  raw  cotton  exported 
from  the  United  States  in  1905  was  shipped  from  twelve  ports. 
For  the  five  years  1901-05  five  ports  sent  out  more  than  200,- 
000  bales  annually  in  the  following  descending  rank:  New  Or- 
leans, La. ;  Galveston,  Tex. ;  Savannah,  Ga. ;  New  York,  N.  Y., 
and  Wilmington,  N.  C.  During  the  same  period  New  Orleans 
and  Galveston  together  contributed  more  than  47  per  cent,  of  the 
total  exportation,  the  former  port  being  a  trifle  in  the  lead. 
Other  important  ports  were,  respectively,  Brunswick,  Ga. ;  Mo- 
bile, Ala.;  Charleston,  S.  C.,  and  Puget  Sound,  Wash.^ 

468.  Imports  of  Cotton. — For  the  five  years  1891  to  1895  in- 
clusive, there  were  imported  into  the  United  States  340,557 
bales  of  raw  cotton,  while  in  the  corresponding  five  years  ten 
years  later  659,141  bales  were  imported.^  Chief  among  the  coun- 
tries from  which  this  trade  comes  are  Asiatic  Turkey  and 
Egypt,  these  two  countries  together  contributing  more  than  90 
per  cent,  of  the  entire  importation.  The  remaining  importations 
come  from  Great  Britain  and  Peru,  the  trade  with  other  coun- 
tries comprising  a  negligible  quantity.^  These  importations 
came  by  way  of  Atlantic  ports  chiefly. 

1  Dept.  Com.  and  Labor,  Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States,  1905, 
p.  388. 

2  Dept.  Com.  and  Labor,  Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States,  1905, 
p.  440. 

3  Dept.  Com.  and  Labor,  The  Foreign  Commerce  and  Navigation  of  the 
United   States,   1905,  p.   195. 


FIBER   CROPS  369 

469.  Gins. — There  are  two  kinds  of  gins :  roller  gins  and  saw 
gins.  The  roller  gin  has  been  used  in  India  under  the  name 
of  churka  since  ancient  times.     Sea  island  cotton  is  ginned  ex- 


Diagrammatic  section  of  saw  gin 


A— Grate-fall  Head  or  End  of  Breast. 

B— Seed-board. 

C— Saw-cylinder. 

D-Saw. 

E— Grate. 

F— Lever  for  raising  Grate-fall. 

G-Wind-board. 

H— Adjustable  Hollow. 


I- Sliding  Butt. 

J— Patent  Brush. 

K— Sliding  Mote-board. 

L— Bottom  Board. 

M— Movable  Iron  Plate  with  Teeth, 

to  regulate  cleaning  seed. 
N— Screw  to  adjust  the  Iron  Plate  M. 
O— Iron  Brush  Guard. 


clusively  on  a  roller  gin.  While  the  roller  gin  gives  the  best 
results  for  long  staple  upland  cotton,  yet  the  saw  gin  is  usually 
used  for  this  type  of  cotton  on  account  of  its  greater  capacity. 
The  invention  of  the  saw  gin  as  patented  by  Whitney  and 
Holmes  more  than  a  century  ago,  has  greatly  affected  the  cotton 
industry.  The  improvement  in  gins  since  that  time  has  been 
in  perfecting  mechanical  details  and  the  adoption  of  labor  sav- 


3/0  THE   FORAGE  AND  FIBER  CROPS   IN   AMERICA 

ing  methods.  The  seed  cotton  is  fed  from  a  hopper  into  the 
breast  where  the  revolving  saws  operate  upon  the  seeds,  re- 
moving the  lint.  When  the  lint  is  removed  the  seeds  drop 
through  an  opening,  while  the  lint  is  removed  from  the  saws  by 
means  of  a  revolving  cylinder  studded  with  25  to  30  rows  of 
bristles.  At  the  same  time  this  cylinder  causes  a  draft  of  air, 
which  condenses  the  lint  against  a  revolving  and  perforated 
cylinder  whence  it  is  removed  in  a  continuous  sheet  and  con- 
veyed to  the  press. 

470.  Bales. — The  standard  square  bale  of  cotton  as  it  is  first 
baled,  or  as  it  leaves  the  gin,  is  54  inches  long,  24  inches  thick 
and  42  to  46  inches  wide  and  has,  therefore,  a  density  of  about 
14  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  These  bales,  as  they  are  sold  by  the 
planter,  are  shipped  to  the  compress  where  they  are  re-pressed, 
the  width  being  reduced  to  20  inches  so  that  the  final  bale  is 
54x24x20  inches,  and  has  a  density  of  about  30  pounds  to  the 
cubic  foot.  Numerous  attempts  have  been  made  to  make  a 
bale  at  the  gin  of  sufficient  density  for  final  shipment,  and  at  the 
same  time  not  injure  the  staple.  The  form  of  bale  which  has 
been  most  used  for  this  purpose  is  the  250-pound  cylindrical  lap 
bale.  The  lap  of  lint  as  it  comes  from  the  gins  is  pressed 
around  a  rod  under  high  pressure.  This  cylindrical  bale  is  40 
inches  long,  and  has  a  density  of  about  30  pounds  per  cubic 
foot. 

471.  Presses. — Ginnery  presses  for  making  the  standard 
square  bales  may  be  divided  into  three  kinds:  screw  presses, 
hydraulic  presses,  and  direct  steam  presses.  Screw  presses  may 
be  run  by  mule,  horse,  water,  steam,  or  other  power,  and  when 
each  plantation  did  its  own  pressing,  this  was  the  common 
form.  In  hydraulic  presses  the  hydraulic  pump  forces  the  water 
or  oil  against  the  vertical  ten-inch  cylinder  and  plunger  at  a 
pressure  of  about  600  pounds  per  square  inch,  or  about  47,000 
pounds  per  bale. 


FIBER   CROrS 


371 


In  the  steam  presses  the  cylinder  and  piston  are  about  30 
inches  in  diameter  and  the  boiler  pressure  of  the  steam  is  from 
70  to  100  pounds  per  square  inch  or  from  50,000  to  70,000 
pounds  per  bale.  Compresses  are  simply  specially  powerful 
steam  presses  having  cylinders  from 
80  to  90  inches  in  diameter,  which 
are  operated  under  about  100  pounds 
pressure,  or  from  500,000  to  600,000 
pounds  per  bale/ 

472.  Ginning.— Short  staple  up- 
land cotton  is  ginned  on  a  saw  gin 
as  invented  by  Whitney  and  Holmes, 
although  subsequently  much  im- 
proved in  mechanical  details.  For- 
merly each  plantation  ginned  its 
own  cotton  and  pressed  it  into  bales 
by  means  of  the  wooden  screw 
presses,  but  at  present  most  of  the 
cotton  is  ginned  and  pressed  at  the 
public  ginnery. 

A  gin  is  usually  rated  by  the  num- 
ber of  its  saws,  70  saws  being  the 

standard  size  and  capable  of  ginning    Wood  frame  hand  and  horse  cotton 

about  a  bale  an  hour.    An  ordinary  ^''^f^'   ^°''f  ^^"«  ^^°^" 

^ "'  levers  of  horse  press 

public  ginnery  usually  has  four  to  six 

gins  so  arranged  as  to  convey  the  cotton  from  the  wagon  through 
a  twelve-inch  pipe  by  suction,  to  feed  the  cotton  simultaneously 
into  all  the  gins,  and  to  collect  the  ginned  cotton  as  it  leaves 
the  different  gins  into  a  single  condenser  which  delivers  the 
lint  in  a  continuous  stream  into  the  press.  At  the  same  time 
the  seed  is  delivered  by  special  conveyer,  air-blast  or  suction, 


1  For    detailed    discussion    of    modern    cotton    gins    and    presses,    see    D.    A. 
Tompkins:  Cotton  and  Cotton  Oil,  Chapter  VI. 


37^  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

to  an  elevated  bin  from  which  the  owner  may  receive  it  in  his 
wagon  by  gravity.  Thus,  in  a  few  minutes  from  the  time  the 
cotton  is  unloaded,  the  owner  may  receive  his  seed  and  his 
baled  cotton.  During  the  whole  process  little  or  no  hand  labor 
is  required.  The  improvement  in  the  economy  of  labor  in 
ginning  and  pressing  cotton  is  analogous  to  that  brought  about 
by  the  steam  thresher  and  the  elevator  system  in  cereal  produc- 
tion. 

The  commercial  value  of  cotton  may  be  seriously  affected  by 
the  process  of  ginning.  Anything  which  tends  to  break  the  fibers 
will  necessarily  reduce  the  value  for  manufacturing  purposes. 
Good  ginning  depends  on  the  freedom  of  the  seed  cotton  from 
foreign  substances,  as  leaves  and  burs,  on  dryness  of  the  crop,  on 
the  condition  of  the  gin  and  the  rate  at  which  the  gin  is  run, 
and  on  proper  feeding  of  the  seed  cotton.  The  common  rate  of 
speed  for  the  steam  engine  is  about  500  revolutions  per  minute. 
A  rate  of  300  revolutions  per  minute  will  produce  a  lint  of  higher 
quality,  but  will  greatly  reduce  the  capacity  of  the  gin.  Newly 
sharpened  saws  or  wet  cotton  may  cause  breaking  of  the  fibers. 
Special  gins,  known  as  delinter  gins,  are  made  for  removing  the 
"fuzz"  or  linters  from  seed  which  is  to  be  used  for  the  produc- 
tion of  cotton  seed  oil. 

473.  Marketing. — The  seed  cotton  is  ordinarily  taken  to  the 
public  gin  in  wagon  holding  about  1,500  pounds  of  seed  cotton,  or 
about  a  bale  of  lint.  This  is  ginned  and  baled  at  once  at  a  cost  of 
about  a  dollar  a  bale,  the  planter  receiving  back  the  cotton  baled, 
which  he  may  sell  at  once  to  the  cotton  merchant  or  store  in 
the  warehouse,  or  return  to  the  plantation  until  he  is  ready  to 
dispose  of  it.  When  stored  in  the  warehouse,  there  is  a  charge 
for  storing,  insurance  and  usually  selling,  amounting  to  one  to 
two  dollars  per  bale.  After  baling,  cotton  is  frequently  stored 
v/ith  little  or  no  protection,  often  to  its  serious  detriment. 

All  raihvay  towns  of  moderate  size  or  larger  have  cotton  mer- 
tha-Tits  whc  t>i>y  the  cotton  for  cash  upon  inspection.    The  cotton 


Fir.RR  CROPS  373 

is  then  shipped  to  larger  shipping  points  where  the  bales  are 
compressed  for  final  shipment  to  manufacturer  or  exporter. 
The  planter  may  receive  his  seed  back  with  his  baled  lint,  or 
may  sell  it  to  the  ginner,  who  frequently  acts  as  agent  of  cot- 
ton mill  companies  or  buys  seed  upon  his  own  account. 

474.  Commercial  Grades. — In  buying  cotton,  a  sample  is 
taken  by  hand  from  the  surface  of  the  bale,  and  the  judgment 
as  to  the  quality  of  the  whole  bale  is  made  upon  such  sample. 
Ordinarily  there  is  little  opportunity  to  have  the  contents  of  the 
square  bale  designedly  non-uniform,  and  if  such  should  occur, 
the  marks  upon  the  bale  permit  the  source  of  the  cotton  to  be 
located. 

There  is  no  standard  for  grading  cotton,  nor  are  there  any 
authorized  agencies  for  grading  cotton,  it  being  done  by  men 
who  have  become  expert,  but  who  are  usually  unable  to  give 
any  reason  for  their  judgment.  Under  this  system  the  grading 
at  small  centers  is  always  made  low  enough  to  be  sure  to  pass 
when  it  reaches  the  larger  markets.  The  most  important  charac- 
ters of  cotton  are  the  length,  strength  and  uniformity  of  staple. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  cotton  is  graded  largely  upon 
cleanliness,  color  indicating  its  exposure  to  the  weather  and 
upon  the  feel,  determined  largely  by  pressing  the  sample  in  the 
palm  of  the  hand. 

Upland  cotton  is  graded  in  America  into  seven  principal 
grades,  from  highest  to  lowest  as  follows:  fair,  middling  fair, 
good  middling,  middling,  low  middling,  good  ordinary,  ordinary. 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  middling  grade  is  intermediate  between 
the  highest  and  the  lowest  grade,  which  probably  explains  the  use 
of  the  term,  since  it  has  no  significance  so  far  as  the  source  of 
the  cotton  or  the  use  to  which  it  is  to  be  put  is  concerned. 
The  grades  above  mentioned  are  what  are  known  as  full  grades. 
Between  each  of  these  grades  there  are  usually  three  interme- 
diate grades:  thus  between  the  full  grades  fair  and  middling 
fair  there  are  the  intermediate  grades  from  highest  to  lowest 


374 


THE    FORAGE   AND   FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


as  follows:  barely   fair,  strictly  middling  fair,   and   fully  mid- 
dling fair. 

The  term,  strictly,  is  used  to  signify  a  grade  half  way  between 
the  full  grades,  while  the  term,  barely,  signifies  a  grade  inter- 
mediate between  the  next  higher  full  grade  and  the  half  grade, 
and  the  term,  fully,  is  used  to  apply  to  a  grade  intermediate 
between  the  half  grade  and  the  next  lower  full  grade.  The  first 
of  these  intermediate  grades  is  known  as  quarter  grades.  In 
ordinary  market  quotations,  quarter  grades  and  some  half 
grades  are  not  used.  The  markets  usually  recognize  a  differ- 
ence between  cotton  frorn  regions  which  are  principally  low 
lands  and  river  bottoms  and  that  coming  from  uplands.  The 
former,  known  as  gulf  cotton,  usually  has  slightly  longer  staple. 
The  following  table  gives  the  grades  quoted  on  the  New  York 
Cotton  Exchange,  and  shows  the  range  of  prices  due  to  differ- 
ence in  kinds  and  grades  of  cotton:^ 

Grades  and  Prices^  of  Cotton 


Grades 

Fair       .... 

Middling  fair 

Strictly  good  middling 

Good  middling 

Middling 

Strictly  low   middling  . 

Low   middling 

Good   ordinary 


Uplands 


Gulf 


12.10 

12.35 

11.96 

12.21 

11.52 

11.77 

11.09 

11.64 

10.90 

11.15 

10.75 

11.00 

10.52 

10.77 

10.10 

10.35 

The  middling  grade  is  known  as  contract  grade,  since  it  is 
customary  to  base  all  contracts  for  cotton  on  this  grade,  al- 
though the  cotton  delivered  may  be  of  a  different  grade,  the 
price  being  adjusted  to  the  grade  furnished. 

d75.    Yield. — The  yield  of  cotton  for  four  recent  years  has 

1  The  prices  given  are  for  July  31,  1906.  American  Wool  and  Cotton 
Reporter,  Vol.  XX,  p.  991. 

-  Dollars   per   hundred   weight. 


FIBER    CROPS  375 

been  210  pounds  per  acre  as  compared  with  185  pounds  a  decade 
earlier.  A  yield  of  1,500  pounds  of  seed  cotton  containing  500 
pounds  of  lint,  popularly  spoken  of  as  a  bale  of  cotton,  is  con- 
sidered a  good  yield.^  Two  bales  of  cotton  are  not  unusual  on 
certain  types  of  soil.  The  yield  of  sea  island  cotton  is  less, 
from  100  to  300  pounds  being  considered  fair  to  good  yields. 

476.  Price. — Since  the  United  States  raises  such  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  cotton  of  the  world,  and  since  there  is  no  other 
fiber  that  will  replace  cotton  for  most  purposes  at  anywhere 
near  the  same  price  per  pound,  any  large  fluctuation  in  yield 
which  may  easily  occur  on  account  of  climatic  conditions,  fun- 
gous diseases  or  insect  attacks,  may  profoundly  affect  the  price 
of  cotton.  Thus  during  the  past  ten  years  the  December  price 
of  middling  upland  cotton  has  ranged  from  5.6  to  14. i  cents 
per  pound,  and  the  May  price  has  varied  from  6.1  to  13.9  cents 
per  pound. 

When  short  staple  upland  cotton  is  worth  9  cents  a  pound, 
long  staple  upland  with  one  and  a  quarter  inch  staple  may  be 
worth  12  cents,  and  with  one  and  a  half  inch  staple  may  be 
worth  15  cents.  The  price  of  sea  island  cotton  is  quite  variable, 
but  in  extreme  cases  may  bring  70  cents  a  pound.  In  the  past 
fifteen  years  the  price  received  for  seed  by  the  planters  has 
risen  from  ten  dollars  or  less  to  fifteen  or  more  dollars  a  ton. 
Thus  when  a  grower  sells  a  bale  of  cotton  for  forty-five  dollars, 
he  may  receive  from  seven  to  eight  dollars  for  his  seed. 

477.  Collateral  Reading. — Alfred  B.  Shepperson:  Cotton  Facts  (Annual). 
New  York:   The  Author,    15   William   Street. 

C.  W.  Burkett  and  C.  H.  Poe:  Cotton,  pp.  200-233.  New  York:  Doubleday, 
Page  &  Co.,   1906. 

H.  Thompson:  From  the  Cotton  Field  to  the  Cotton  Mill.  New  York:  The 
Macmillan  Co.,   1906. 

United  States  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor,  Bureau  of  the  Census 
Bui.  No.  40,   1906.     Cotton  Production,  pp.  46  et  seq. 

Twelfth  Census  of  the  United  States,  VI  (1900),  Part  II,  pp.  405-419. 

^  A  commercial  bale  of  cotton  is  usually  rated  at  500  pounds  gross — that  is, 
including  bagging  and  metal  hoops,  containing  478  pounds  of  lint. 


XXII 


FIBER  CROPS 


COTTON 


Uses  and  History 

478.  Lint. — The  cotton  plant  is  in  many  respects  the  most 
important  upon  the  globe.  It  furnishes  the  clothing  of  the 
larger  portion  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  world.  It  is  subject 
to  more  extended  and  varied  use  under  the  widest  conditions 
of  climate  and  civilization  of  any  other  fiber.  It  is  the  most 
important  article  of  trade.  It  employs  more  capital  and  labor 
than  any  other  single  manufacturing  industry. 

The  usual  method  of  utilizing  cotton  is  first  to  spin  the  lint 
into  threads  technically  known  as  yarn.  The  fineness  of  the 
yarn  is  measured  by  the  number  of  "counts"  to  the  pound  of 
lint  cotton.  A  count  is  a  "hank"  of  840  yards  of  yarn.  Thus 
sea  island  cotton  usually  produces  yarn  ranging  from  120  to 
320  counts  per  pound.  In  other  words,  one  pound  of  sea  island 
lint  cotton  produces  from  120  to  300  hanks  of  840  yards  each.^ 
Short  staple  upland  yarn  is  woven  into  all  sorts  of  fabrics,  is 
used  for  mixing  with  wool,  silk  and  flax,  knit  into  hosiery  or 
made  into  cordage  of  various  sizes  and  descriptions.  Long 
staple  upland  cotton  is  utilized  largely  for  making  sewing  threads 
and  fine  lawns,  while  the  finer  threads  for  sewing  and  for  laces 
and  the  finest  cotton  fabrics  are  made  from  sea  island  cotton. 

1  It  is  said  that  a  pound  of  sea  island  cotton  has  produced  as  high  as  2,000 
counts. 


FUUiR   CROPS  377 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  counts  usually  ob- 
tained from  a  pound  of  lint  of  the  several  types  of  cotton: 

Table  Showing  Number  of  Counts  in  Different  Types  of  Cotton 

Type  Number  of  counts 

Short  staple  upland 30-  60 

Long  staple  upland        ......  50-  80 

Peruvian          ........  40—  70 

Egyptian 70-250 

Sea   island 100-400 

Linters  .........  8-10 

479.  Manufactories. — In  1901  there  were  in  the  United  States 
1,055  establishments  for  the  manufacture  of  cotton  exclusive  of 
hosiery  and  knit  goods.  The  valuation  of  the  products,  in-, 
eluding  custom  work  and  repairing,  of  these  manufactories  at 
that  date  was  in  round  numbers  339  million  dollars.  The  aver- 
age value  of  imports  of  cotton  manufactures  during  1901-05  was 
$47,122,800,  as  against  average  exports  to  the  value  of  $31,333,- 

375-' 

Of  spindles  in  operation  September  first,  1905,  there  were  23,- 
850,000  as  against  16,100,000  the  same  date  in  1895.  The  aver- 
age percentage  of  the  commercial  crop  taken  by  United  States 
mills  has  been  for  the  years  1901-05  a  trifle  more  than  36  per 
cent.  The  statistics  of  the  factory  supply,  number  of  spindles 
and  mill  consumption  of  cotton  by  countries  were  as  shown  in 
table  on  page  378." 

In  the  United  States  the  numxber  of  spindles  in  the  northern 
states  was  15,865,790,  while  in  the  southern  states  it  was  8,211,- 
734.  The  increase  in  the  number  of  spindles  in  five  years  was 
12  per  cent,  in  the  northern  and  108  per  cent,  in  the  south- 
ern states. 

^Dept.  Com.  and  Labor,  Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States,  1905, 
pp.  441,  655,  656. 

2  Dept.  Com.  and  Labor,  Bureau  Census  Bui.  No.  40  (1906),  p.  56. 


37^  THE    FORAGE    AND   FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

Table  Showing  World's  Statistics  of  Cotton,  1904-05 
Bales  500  Pounds  Net 


Country- 

Commercial 

crop 

for   1904 

bales 

Spindles 
number 

Mill  con- 
sumption 
bales  ■ 

United   States 

13,084,575 

24,077,524 

48,400,000 

7,000,000 

27,988,546 

5,250.000 

1,387,846 

3,422,822 

4,278,980 
3,600,000 

Russia 

Other  Europe 

India 

Japan 

Egypt 

Other  countries 

554,000  1 

2,712,000 

1,258,000 
833,000 

1,285,000 

5,003,900 

1,590,000 

875,000 

760,000 

Total 

18,441,515 

117,526,738 

17,392,880 

480.  Seed. — The  extravagant  statement  has  been  made  that  if 
the  cotton  plant  produced  no  lint,  it  would  still  be  worth 
growing  on  account  of  its  seed.  In  recent  years,  however,  cot- 
ton seed  has  risen  to  such  a  price  on  account  of  the  increasing 
demand  of  the  cotton-seed  oil  mills  that  it  has  become  an  im- 
portant element  in  the  cotton  planter's  profits.  The  seed  as  re- 
ceived by  the  oil  mill  is  first  re-ginned,  by  which  a  portion  of  the 
linters  is  removed.  It  is  next  hulled,  since  the  hulls  would,  if 
not  removed,  absorb  the  oil.  The  meats  are  next  cooked  at 
220°  F.  for  15  to  20  minutes  to  coagulate  the  albuminoids, 
to  partially  drive  out  the  water  and  to  melt  the  oil,  and  finally 
subjected  to  a  pressure  of  3,000  to  4,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 
The  crude  oil  is  shipped  in  tank  cars  to  the  refinery,  while  the 
cake  is  dried,  cooked,  and  then  ground,  when  it  is  known  as 
cotton-seed  meal. 

The  amounts  of  the  different  products  obtained  will  vary 
with  the  character  and  condition  of  seed,  and  the  skill  and  per- 

1  Turkestan  and  Transcaucasia  in  Asia. 


FIBER    CROPS 


379 


fection  of  the  manufactory  methods,  but  the  separation  is  never 
absolutely  perfect.  (407)  The  uses  which  the  seed  serves  may 
be  shown  in  the  following  graphic  manner,  which  gives  standard 
results  obtained  at  the  cotton-seed  oil  mills :  ^ 


Short  lint 

■  Batting 

or  linters 

Carpets 

35  lbs. 

.  Rope  and  twine 
'  Cattle  food 

Hulls 

Fuel 

865  lb3. 

Fertilizers 
Paper  stock 

Cotton 

, 

seed 

Culinary  uses 

,000  lbs. 

Lard  compounds 

Crude  oil 

Substitute  for  olive  oil 

300  lbs.  or 

Oleomargarine 

Meats 

40  gallons 

Medicinal  compounds 

1,100  lbs. 

Soap  stock 

L 

Cake  meal 

'  Cattle  food 

800  lbs. 

Fertilizer 

The  seed  is  still  used  largely  as  fertilizer,  either  composted 
with  manure  and  commercial  fertilizers  or  otherwise,  although 
less  extensively  than  formerly.  (440)  The  seed  is  rather 
sparingly  used  as  cattle   food. 

481.  Oil. — The  cotton-seed  oil  industry  has  developed  chiefly 
in  the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  the  greater  progress  being  made 
in  the  last  decade.  In  1905  there  were  715  cotton-seed  products 
mills    representing   a   capital    of   seventy-four   million    dollars. 


^  The  Census  Bureau  gives  the  quantity  of  products  per  ton  of  cotton  seed, 
as  manufactured  in  the  United  States,  in  1905,  as  follov^rs:  crude  oil  300  lb., 
meal  813  lb.,  hulls  725  lb.,  linters  35  lb.;  total  1,873  lb.  The  value  of  the 
products  is  given  as  follows:  crude  oil  $9.37,  meal  $8.30,  hulls  $1.67,  linters 
$1.38;  total  $20.72.  The  average  cost  of  a  ton  of  cotton  seed  to  the  manu- 
facturer is  given  as  $15.53. 


380  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA     • 

The  crude  oil  which  is  pressed  from  the  meats  of  the  cotton 
seed  goes  to  the  reifinery  where  it  is  first  filtered  to  remove  for- 
eign matter  in  suspension,  and  then  treated  with  caustic  soda, 
which  unites  with  the  free  fatty  acids.  This  product,  called 
soap  stock,  is  removed  by  settling,  or  more  rarely  by  filter 
presses,  and  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  soap.  The  resulting 
oil  is  known  as  sum.mer  yellow  oil,  which  may  constitute  from 
80  to  95  per  cent,  of  the  original  crude  oil. 

Summer  yellow  is  next  mixed  with  fuller's  earth  and  the 
agitated  mass  passed  through  a  filter  press,  which  removes  the 
yellow  color  and  leaves  the  oil  nearly  or  quite  the  color  of 
pure  water,  when  it  is  known  as  summer  white  oil.  Summer 
white  oil  is  used  for  making  lard  compounds,  in  the  manufacture 
of  oleomargarine,  as  a  substitute  for  olive  oil,  and  directly  as 
cotton-seed  oil  for  various  culinary  purposes  for  which  lard 
and  other  fats  are  used.  It  is  also  sold  largely  under  the  name 
of  salad  oil,  although  not  all  salad  oil  is  cotton-seed  oil.  Al- 
though a  perfectly  desirable  and  healthful  article  of  food,  its 
use  is  unfortunately  somewhat  surreptitious.  While  much  of  the 
larger  amount  of  cotton-seed  oil  in  commerce  is  summer  white 
oil,  other  kinds  or  qualities  of  oil  are  produced.  Summer  yel- 
low oil  is  sometimes  bleached  to  a  white  oil  by  the  use  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  when  it  is  known  as  miner's  oil. 

Winter  oils  are  also  produced  from  summer  oils  by  reducing 
the  temperature  to  about  30°  F.,  when  the  stearin  solidi- 
fies and  is  separated  from  the  liquid  olein  by  filtration  under 
pressure  at  the  temperature  named.  The  stearin  is  sold  to  make 
lard  compounds  such  as  cottolene,  while  winter  yellow  oil  is 
highly  prized  for  cooking,  because  olein  does  not  decompose  on 
frying  so  readily,  and  hence  does  not  produce  the  disagreeable 
odor  noticeable  with  summer  oils.^  Winter  white  oil  is  used 
for  the  manufacture  of  medicinal   compounds. 

"Cottonseed-oil   mills   may   be    divided    into    two   classes:    (1)    those    of    large 
capacity,   erected  at   railway   centers,   and    (2)    small   cooperative  mills,  built   in 
1  Tompkins:  Cotton  and  Cotton  Oil,  p.  359. 


FIBER   CROPS  3?';'^ 

towns  with  scanty  railway  facilities  and  depending  for  seed  upon  \ocHlf  s:spply. 
Each  class  of  mills  has  its  advantages.  The  larger  mill  has  more  competition 
in  securing  its  seed  supply,  but  on  the  other  hand,  it  can  readily  draw  upon 
other  localities.  The  expenses  incident  to  operation  and  markccmg  ot  product 
are  proportionally  less  than  in  the  smaller  establishment,  and  make  it  possible 
to  employ  expert  operators.  It  can  carry  the  processes  of  manutacture  further, 
refining  its  oil,  and  conducting  correlated  industries. 

"An  advantage  of  the  small  operative  mill  is  that  the  farmers,  on  account 
of  stock  holdings,  furnish  the  seed  supply  at  reasonable  prices,  and  gxiarantec 
a  ready  market  for  the  meal  and  hulls  for  fertilizing  and  feeding  purposes. 
In  this  way  freight  charges  are  saved  both  on  the  seed  and  on  the  more  bulk> 
products,  leaving  only  the  oil  and  linters,  which  constitute  about  17  per  cent, 
of  the  weight  of  the  products  obtained  from  a  ton  of  seed,  to  be  shipped  tj 
remote   markets. 

"Possibly  the  most  difficult  problem  in  connection  with  the  cottonseed 
products  industry  is  the  proper  storing  and  preservation  of  the  seed.  The 
lint  is  almost  waterproof,  and  is  but  little  injured  in  passing  from  field  to 
the  factory.  But  not  so  with  the  seed,  which  is  very  easily  injured,  and 
reaches  the  mill  in  much  worse  condition  relatively  than  the  lint.  In  wet 
seasons  this  deterioration  amounts  to  a  large  percentage  of  the  value  of  the 
seed,  and  the  products  from  such  damaged  seed  must  be  sold  for  very  in- 
ferior uses.  The  value  of  the  oil  especially  depends  upon  the  condition  of 
the  seed  when  it  reaches  the  mill.  Evidently  the  products  manufactured  from 
cottonseed  would  be  more  useful  and  more  valuable  if  it  were  Cr'.refully  graded 
and  the  good  and  bad  seed  kept  separate.  To  accomplish  this  vhe  cooperation 
of  the  grower,  ginner,  and  miller  is  required.  The  present  tendency  to 
establish  small  cottonseed-oil  mills  with  ginneries  attached  is  a  step  in  this 
direction,  as  the  seed  may  be  stored  at  the  time  it  is  removed  f i  om  the  lint."  ^ 

482.  Cotton-seed  Meal. — The  weight  of  cotton  seed  meal 
is  about  two-fifths  that  of  the  cotton  seed  as  it  goes  to  the 
cotton-seed  mill.  It  is  used  in  the  United  States  as  a  fer- 
tilizer either  as  such  or  mixed  in  commercial  fertilizer.  It  is 
used  principally  as  a  source  of  nitrogen,  but  also  contains  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash,  the  percentage  of  each  in  round  num- 
bers being  '/,  2.5,  and  1.5  per  cent,  respectively.  Cotton-seed 
meal  is  extensively  sold  as  cattle  food,  being  largely  exported  to 
Great  Britain  and  othet  countries.  Mixed  with  wheat  flour 
or  maize  meal,  it  has  been  baked  into  various  forms  of  bread 
stuffs,  when  it  is  said  to  be  palatable  and  wholesome.    The  ex- 

1  Dept.  Com.  and  Labor,  Bu.  Census  Bui.  No.  40  (1906),  pp.  68,  69. 


382 


THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


port   of   cotton-seed   cake   and   cotton-seed   meal    was   in    1905, 
626,000  tons  valued  at  nearly  fourteen  million  dollars. 

Table  Showing  Composition  of  Cotton-seed  Meal^  and  Hulls 


Cot 

on-seed 

meal 

Cott 

on-secd 

hulls 

Analysis 

Mini- 

Maxi- 

Aver- 

Mini- 

Maxi- 

Aver- 

mum 

mum 

age 

mum 

mum 

age 

Water 

5.3 

18.5 

8.5 

7.3 

16.7 

11.4 

Ash 

1.7 

10.6 

7.0 

1.7 

4.4 

2.7 

Protein 

23.3 

52.9 

43.3 

2.8 

5.4 

4.2 

Crude  fiber        .... 

1.9 

15.2 

5.4 

35.8 

67.0 

45.3 

Nitrogen-free  extract 

9.2 

38.7 

22.3 

12.4 

41.2 

34.2 

Fat              

2.2 

20.7 

13.5 

0.8 

5.4 

2.2 

Nitrogen             .... 

3.2 

8.1 

6.8 

0.4 

1.0 

0.7 

Phosphoric   acid 

1.3 

4.6 

2.9 

0.1 

0.6 

0.3 

Potash 

0.9 

3.3 

1.8 

0.4 

1.3 

1.0 

Cotton-seed  meal  is  highly  prized  as  a  source  of  easily  di- 
gestible protein  and  fat  for  milch  cows,  and  fattening  cattle 
and  sheep.  Experience  has  shown  that  it  is  unsafe  to  feed  to 
calves  and  to  swine  of  any  age,  sickness  and  death  resulting 
from  causes  not  well  understood.^  When  fed  to  milch  cows, 
fattening  cattle  and  sheep,  it  is  desirable  to  begin  gradually, 
and  not  to  feed  exclusively  or  excessively.  A  safe  rule  is  to 
begin  feeding  not  to  exceed  two  pounds  per  day  per  1,000  pounds 
live  weight,  and  not  to  increase  beyond  six  pounds  per  day. 
Fermented  meal  never  should  be  used  for  feeding.  Fresh  meal 
has  a  bright  yellow  color  and  a  nutty  odor. 

Cotton-seed  meal  is  sometimes  adulterated  with  finely  ground 
cotton-seed  hulls.     The  hulls  are  not  injurious  but  decrease  the 

^  Sometimes  called  decorticated  cotton-seed  meal  to  distinguish  it  from 
meal  that  is  made  without  removing  hulls.  In  most  cotton  growing  countries, 
except  the  United  States,  it  is  customary  to  express  the  oil  without  previous 
removal   of  the  hulls, 

2  Texas  Sta.  Bui.   No.    55    (1899),   p.   209. 


FIBER    CROPS  383 

feeding  value.  It  is  said  that  English  feeders  prefer  cotton- 
seed meal  made  from  seed  in  which  the  oil  is  expressed  without 
removing  the  hull  because  of  the  mechanical  action  of  the  hulls, 
such  meal  being  purchased  at  a  less  price  per  ton.  When  fed 
to  milch  cows,  cotton-seed  meal  raises  the  melting  point  and 
decreases  the  volatile  acids  of  the  butter. 

483.  Hulls. — Under  present  conditions  of  manufacture,  a  ton 
of  cotton  seed  produces  700  to  900  pounds  of  hulls.  These  are 
used  for  cattle  feeding,  when  they  are  considered  equal  to  rather 
poor  hay.  They  are  also  burned  under  the  boilers  of  oil  mills 
and  the  ash,  which  is  rich  in  potash,  used  as  a  tobacco  fertilizer. 
The  hulls  are  also  sometimes  used  as  a  fertilizer,  but  are  not 
considered  especially  valuable,  except  for  their  mechanical 
effect  upon  heavy  clay  soils. 

484.  Stalks. — The  dry  matter  in  stems,  leaves,  and  burs 
required  to  grow  500  pounds  of  cotton  will  weigh  from  2,500 
to  3,000  pounds.  By  the  time  the  cotton  is  picked  the  leaves, 
about  20  per  cent,  of  the  whole  plant,  have  largely  fallen  to- 
gether with  some  of  the  burs.  In  fenced  fields  cattle  are  some- 
times allowed  to  browse  during  the  winfer.  They  eat  the 
burs  and  smaller  branches,  leaving  only  the  main  stems.  The 
cotton  plant  is  not  especially  palatable  to  domestic  animals, 
doubtless  on  account  of  the  so-called  resin  cavities  which  play 
the  part  of  a  protective  agency. 

When  the  land  is  put  into  cotton  again  or  into  some  other 
crop,  the  stalks  are  gathered  and  burned  or,  what  is  considered 
a  better  practise,  they  are  cut  up  with  a  stalk  cutter  and  plowed 
under.  A  good  quality  of  fiber  has  been  obtained  from  the 
bark.  Five  tons  of  stalk  will  produce  one  ton  of  bark,  and  one 
ton  of  bark  will  produce  1,500  pounds  of  fiber.  A  good  quality 
of  paper  has  also  been  made  from  the  stalks.  In  neither  of 
these  particulars  has  the  plant  assumed  any  commercial  im- 
portance. 


384  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

485.  History, — The  general  cultivation  of  cotton  is  not  very 
ancient  as  compared  to  that  of  wheat.  In  a  limited  way  it  was 
cultivated  in  southeastern  India  in  early  times.  The  clothing 
of  the  ancient  Egyptians  was  made  of  wool  and  flax.  Alex- 
ander the  Great  is  supposed  to  have  brought  the  culture  and 
use  of  cotton  from  India  to  the  native  Europeans.  It  was 
found  in  cultivation  and  use  from  Mexico  and  the  West  Indies 
to  Brazil  and  Peru  when  America  was  discovered. 

The  cultivation  of  cotton  was  limited  before  the  Revolu- 
tionary War.  It  is  said  that  in  1784  eight  bales  of  American 
cotton  were  confiscated  in  Liverpool  on  the  plea  that  cotton 
did  not  grow  in  America.  The  saw  cotton  gin,  as  invented  in 
1792  and  patented  in  1793  by  Eli  Whitney,  with  improvements 
patented  by  Hogden  Holmes  in  1796,  greatly  decreased  the 
labor  of  removing  the  lint  from  the  seed.  This  unique  inven- 
tion and  the  excellent  adaptation  of  southern  United  States  to 
the  growth  of  the  cotton  have  been  prime  factors  in  making  the 
culture  and  manufacture  of  cotton  the  world's  greatest  industry. 

Practicums 

486.  Study  of  Cotton  Plant  in  Field. — Students  may  be  taken  to  the 
cotton  field  at  any  time  during  the  picking  season,  preferably  at  the  second 
picking.     Materials  needed  are  a  tape  measure  and  a  small   fine-toothed  comb. 

Distance  apart  of  rows ft.,    in. 

Distance  apart  of  plants  in  row:  average  of  10  plants in. 

Ground:  levei,  ridged;   weedy,  clean;  compact,  mellow. 

Plants:  height ft.,    in.;   width ft.,    in. 

Stem:  continuous,  divided;  branches,  abundant,  medium,  scarce;  largest 
branches  at  bottom  or  middle. 

Branches:  cylindrical,  not  cylindrical;  boll-bearing,  not;  internodes  or  joints 
in. 

Fruit    branches:    where    do    they    occur?    Length in. 

Range  of  number  of  bolls to 

Leaves:    number   and    depth    of    lobing Are    leaves    opposite    or 

alternate? Are  stipules  present  or  absent? 

Hairiness  of  stems,  branches  and  leaves:   strong,   medium,   slight,   absent. 

Bolls:   no.   on  plant ;   no.   open ;   average   leng^th ; 

average   circumference ;    round,    ellipsoidal,    oval,   irregular;    pointing 

upward,    downward;    length    of    pedicel in.         Sketch    a    longitudinal 

and  cross  section  of  bolls. 


FIBER    CROPS 


38s 


Burs:  heavy  not  rolled,  thin  rolled;  blunt  pointed,  sharp  pointed;  number 
of  carpels 

Locks:   no.   of   seeds   per   lock ;    sketch   arrangement;   adherence   to 

bolls,   compact    or   flabby. 

Seeds:   fuzzy,  naked;  if  fuzzy,  white,  green,  brown;  if  naked,  black,  brown; 

large,    small;    length    of    5    placed   end   to   end in.       Is   the    hilum    at 

large  or  small  end  ? ;   where  does  longest  lint  occur  ? 

Lint:    average    length in.;     white,    amber,    brown;     clean,    dirty; 

strong,   medium,   weak;   abundant,   medium,   scarce. 

487.  Study  of  Cotton  in  the  Laboratory. — Give  each  student  5  open 
bolls  of  cotton  from  each  of 
three  regions  of  the  plant — 
base,  middle,  and  top,  and 
from  three  types;  as,  sea 
island,  long  staple  upland, 
and  short  staple  upland;  or 
three  varieties;  as,  Peterkin, 
King,  and  Truitt.  These 
should  be  picked  and  allowed 
to  dry  a  couple  of  weeks  be- 
fore using.  The  data  ob- 
tained will  permit  a  com- 
parison between  cotton  from 
different  parts  of  the  same 
plant,  and  that  from  differ- 
ent types  or  varieties. 

(a)  Length    of   lint:    average 

of  5  determinations 
In  deter- 
mining length   of  lint, 

take  a  small  sample  from  the  middle  portion  of  the  seed.  As  far  as 
possible,  the  middle  seed  of  each  lock  should  be  taken.  Note  uniformity 
of  length  of  lint  over  all  portions  of  the  seed. 

(b)  Percentage   of  lint:   average  of  5   determinations Gin  by  hand 

one  lock  from  each  boll,  and  v/eigh  separately  total  seed  cotton  and 
ginned  seeds;  the  difference  will  be  the  amount  of  lint. 

(c)  Determine   number   of   seeds  in   each  lock,    and   note   amount  of   fuzz   and 

color.     From  above  data  calculate: 

1.  Number  of  bolls  required  to  make  1  lb.  seed  cotton; 

2.  Number  of  bolls  required  to  make  1  lb.  lint  cotton; 

3.  Number  of  seeds  to  the  pound. 


Fiber  testing  machine  * 


1  This  machine  was  used  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  Other 
fiber-testing  machines  are  made  by  A.  S.  McKenzie,  corner  11th  St.  and  Ridge 
Ave.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


T^S6  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER   CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

(d)  Length  uf  10  seeds in. 

Width  of  10  seeds in. 

(e)  Test  tensile   strength milligrams. 

N.  B. — The  distance  between  the  point  of  attachment  of  fiber  and  the  point 
of  suspension  of  weight  should  be  the  same  in  every  case. 

488.  Crossing  Cotton. — Select  plants  of  the  type  which  it  is  desired  to 
cross,  which  have  a  half  dozen  buds  about  to  open,  and  remove  all  other  buds 
or  flowers.  The  flowers  on  the  plants  to  be  used  as  female  parent  should  be 
emasculated  by  carefully  clipping  away  the  petals  and  the  enclosed  stamens, 
care  being  taken  that  none  of  the  anthers  are  broken,  and  the  pollen  dropped 
upon  the  stigma.  Both  the  plants  of  the  female  and  the  male  parents  may 
be  covered  with  paper  bags  or  as  directed  for  wheat.  (C.  A.  196)  When 
the  clefts  of  the  stigma  open,  which  is  usually  at  or  just  before  sunrise,  dust 
them  with  pollen  from  a  flower  which  has  just  opened  and  taken  from  the 
plant  to  be  used  as  the  male  parent.  For  convenience  in  handling,  the  petal? 
may  be  clipped  off  of  the  male  flower. 

489.  Collateral  Reading. — F.  Wilkinson:  The  Story  of  the  Cotton  Plant. 
New  York:   D.  Appleton  &  Co.,   1899. 

D.  A.  Tompkins:  Cotton  and  Cotton  Oil.  Charlotte,  N  C:  The  Author, 
1901. 

C.  P.  Brooks:  Cotton,  pp.  274-308.     New  York:   Spon  &  Chamberlain,    1889. 

Louis  Edgar  Andes:  Vegetable  Fats  and  Oils,  pp.  110-117.  London:  Scott, 
Greenwood  &  Co.,   1897. 

Leebert  Lloyd  Lamborn:  Cottonseed  Products,  pp.  16-30,  31-40.  New  York: 
D.  Van  Nostrand  Co.,   1904. 


XXIII 


FIBER  CROPS 

I.     FLAX 

490.  Relationships. — The  genus  Linum  has  been  divided  into 
many  species,  but  in  many  cases  the  distinctions  are  of  minor 
importance.  The  only  species  of  commercial  importance  is  the 
common  flax  (Linum  usitatissimum  L.).  There  are  both  spring 
and  winter  varieties,  the  former  only  being  cultivated  in  Amer- 
ica. There  is  a  form  of  summer  flax,  sparingly  cultivated  in 
Europe,  in  which  the  capsules  or  seed  bolls  burst  open  and 
scatter  the  seed.  Perennial  flax  (L.  perenne  L.)  has  been  cul- 
tivated experimentally,  but  is  of  no  commercial  importance. 
Rocky  Mountain  flax  (L.  lenisii  Pursh.),  occurring  widely 
throughout  sub-arid  western  North  America,  has  been  used  by 
the  Indians  for  making  cord,  fish-nets,  basket  frames,  and 
similar  purposes. 

491.  Description. — Flax  is  an  annual  with  a  single,  upright 
branching  stem  varying  under  cultivation  from  one  and  a  half 
to  three  or  more  feet  in  height.  It  has  a  thread-like  tap  root, 
sparingly  supplied  with  tender  branches.  The  leaves  are  simple, 
narrow,  entire,  and  nearly  sessile.  It  has  perfect,  symmetrical, 
rather  conspicuous  blue  flowers,  all  parts  being  in  fives.  The 
carpels,  however,  are  divided  by  a  false  partition,  hence  the 
capsule  or  seed  boll  is  usually  ten-celled  and  ten-seeded.  The 
seed  boll  is  one-fourth  inch  or  more  in  length,  and  the  seeds 
vary  in  length  from  one-seventh  to  one-fifth  inch. 

492.  Flax  Seed. — The  seeds  are  lenticular,  compressed,  with 
a  smooth,  polished  surface,  one-sixth  to  one-fourth  inch  long, 

387 


388 


THE    FORAGE    AND   FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


varying  in  color  from  yellow  to  dark  brown,  light  brown  being 
the  standard  color.  The  Minnesota  Station  found  no  ap- 
preciable difference  between  light  brown  and  dark  brown  flax 
seeds  either  in  general  chemical  composition,  properties  of  the 
oil,  or  germinating  power/  The  average  germination  of  flax 
seeds  is  about  85  per  cent.  The  Canada  Station  found  the 
decrease  in  viability  during  five  years  to  be  as  follows:  81,  82, 
75,  49,  and  26  per  cent. 

The  cells  of  the  epidermis  or  seed  coat  are  filled  with  a 
mucilaginous  material  readily  viscid  in  hot  water,  which  gives 
flax  seed  its  value  in  medicine.  Flax  seed  has  a  large,  straight, 
oily  embryo  consisting  of  two  long,  thick  cotyledons  and  a  short 
radicle.  The  endosperm  which  surrounds  the  embryo  is  com- 
paratively thin,  and  in  mature  seeds  contains  no  starch.  The 
seed  is  characterized  by  its  high  percentage  of  protein  and  oil, 
20  to  25  per  cent,  of  the  former,  and  from  30  to  39  per  cent, 
of  the  latter.  The  average  composition  of  the  flax  seed  and 
of  old  and  new  process  linseed  meal  is  as  follows: 


Old   process 

New    process 

Analysis 

Flax   seed 

linseed 

linseed 

meal 

meal 

Water 

9.1 

9.2 

10.1 

Ash 

4.3 

5.7 

5.8 

Protein   (Nx6.25)       . 

22.6 

32.9 

33.2 

Crude   fiber            .... 

7.1 

8.9 

9.5 

Nitrogen-free   extract 

23.2 

35.4 

38.4 

Fat 

33.7 

7.9 

3.0 

Flax  is  grown  in  America  almost  exclusively  for  its  seed, 
from  which  is  obtained  an  oil  highly  prized  for  paint  and 
varnish  on  account  of  its  quality  of  drying  quickly.  The  oil 
is  obtained  by  crushing  the  seed  and  heating  it  to  165°  F.,  after 
which  it  is  either   (i)   placed  between  cloths  or  in  sacks  and 

1  Minnesota  Sta.  Bui.  No.  90   (1905),  p.  226. 


FIBKR    CROPS 


389 


Cross-section  of  bark  of  flax  plant: 
b  parenchyma,  c  bast,  c/  cambium. 
260  times 
(After  Lugger) 


a    epidermis, 
Enlarged 


subjected  to  hydraulic  pressure;  or  (2)  the  warm  meal  is  placed 
in  large  cylinders  and  treated  with  naphtha  which  extracts  the 
oil,  known  in  commerce  as  linseed  oil.  The  resulting  linseed 
meal  is,  in  the  first  in- 
stance, known  as  old 
process  linseed  meal,  and 
in  the  second  as  new 
process  linseed  meal.  In 
either  case  on  account 
of  its  high  protein  con- 
tent, and  because  of 
other  valuable  proper- 
ties, it  is  highly  prized 
for  stock  feeding,  espe- 
cially for  use  in  rather  small 
quantities,  two  pounds  or  less 
per  1,000  pounds  of  live 
weight. 

The  yield  of  oil  varies  in 
different  years,  according  to 
conditions  under  which  the 
the  seed  is  ripened.  Ordinarily 
100  pounds  of  pure,  clean  seed 
produce  from  33  to  36  pounds 

of     commercial      oil      weighing   Longitudinal  section  of  bark  of  flax  plant:  a 
7.5     pounds     per     gallon.       The       epidermis,  ^  parenchyma,  c  bast,  a?  cam- 
...  ,  .       ,       .         ,  bium.     Enlarged  260  times 

Oil  is  used  extensively  in  the  ^p^n^j.  Lugger) 

manufacture  of  paint,  oil  var- 
nishes, printing  ink,  floor  cloth,  artificial  india-rubber,  and  soft 
soap.     In  the  manufacture  of  colors  and  varnishes  it  is  some- 
times mixed  with  hemp  seed  oil. 

493.  Flax  Fiber. — In  a  flax  stem  three  zones  may  be  recog- 
nized— namely,  the  pith,  the  wood,  and  the  bark.  The  bark  is 
further  divided  into  four  layers,  the  skin  or  epidermis,  the 
parenchyma,  the  bast  or  flax  fiber  cells,  and  the  cambium  layer. 


390  THE    FORAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

Since  the  tough  bast  cells  lie  between  the  tender  thin-walled 
cells  of  the  parenchyma  and  cambium,  it  is  possible,  by  "retting" 
the  stems,  to  clear  the  flax  fibers  from  the  adjacent  cells.  The 
retting,  which  may  be  done  by  allowing  the  stems  to  be  exposed 
to  dew  or  rain,  or  by  placing  in  pools  of  water,  causes  the 
parenchyma  and  cambium  cells  to  decay  or  become  tender,  and 
thus  permits  the  tougher  fiber  cells  to  be  separated.  (496) 
The  bast  or  flax  fiber  cells  are  from  0.08  to  0.16  inch  long,  but 
they  are  so  completely  cemented  together  thLt  continuous  fibers 
the  length  of  the  flax  stem  may  be  removed.  The  dry  stems 
of  flax  contain  from  20  to  2^  per  cent,  of  bast,  58  per  cent, 
of  which  is  pure  fiber,  25  per  cent,  other  substances  soluble  in 
water,  and  17  per  cent,  soluble  in  alkalis.^  When  dew  retted, 
the  fiber  is  silvery  gray;  when  water  retted,  yellowish  white. 

Two  forms  of  commercial  fiber  are  obtained:  long,  straight 
lint,  12  to  36  inches  in  length,  and  the  short,  tangled  fiber  which 
in  dressing  separates  from  the  long  lint,  and  is  called  tow. 
Coarse  tow  is  also  made  by  simply  removing  the  remaining  part 
of  the  stem  and  baling  the  tangled  mass.  The  latter  is  used  in 
upholstering  and  in  making  twine,  bagging,  and  paper.  Flax 
fiber  is  sparingly  produced  in  Ontario,  Canada,  and  a  few  of 
the  northern  United  States.  Flax  fiber  is  produced  principally 
in  the  cool,  moist,  low  lying  regions  of  northern  Europe.  Flax 
is  the  highest  form  of  bast  fiber,  being  used  principally  for  the 
manufacture  of  laces,  fine  linens,  dress  goods,  and  thread. 

494.  Adaptation. — Flax  may  be  grown  for  seed  in  any  cli- 
mate or  soil  in  which  wheat  can  be  successfully  grown.  Sandy 
loams  are  rather  better  than  heavy  clay  loams.  For  the  produc- 
tion of  the  best  grades  of  fiber,  a  cool  and  continuously  moist 
climate  and  soil  are  requisite.  It  is  rather  easily  injured  by 
late  spring  frosts.     It  requires  about  90  days  to  mature. 

In  the  United  States  flax  has  always  been  a  pioneer  crop.  It 
is  customary  for  the  pioneer  to  break  the  prairie  sod  about  two 

1  Minnesota  Sta.  Bui.  No.  13    (1890),  p.  37. 


IIJJER    CROPS  391 

inches  deep,  turning  it  over  flat.  After  it  has  rotted  one  season 
it  is  cross-plowed  about  four  inches  deep,  thus  covering  the 
rotted  sod  with  about  two  inches  of  fresh  soil.  This  is  known  as 
"back  setting."    On  soil  thus  prepared  wheat  is  usually  sown. 

It  has  been  the  custom  in  the  states  farther  south  to  plant 
maize  upon  the  freshly  turned  sod,  producing  a  crop  with  little 
or  no  cultivation,  while  in  Minnesota,  the  Dakotas  and  western 
Canada  it  has  been  the  custom  to  sow  flax;  thus  a  crop  is  se- 
cured while  waiting  for  the  sod  to  rot.  Flax  seed  is  there- 
fore a  sort  of  by-product  in  the  development  of  a  new  country, 
and  this  source  of  supply  has  been  sufficient  to  meet  the  market 
demands.  Further,  soils  soon  become  "flax  sick"  on  account  of 
the  wilt  disease,  which  causes  the  abandonment  of  flax  culture 
in  older  regions. 

495.  Diseases. — Flax  is  attacked  by  several  fungous  diseases.  Soil  on 
which  such  attacks  have  occurred  is  known  as  flax  sick  soil.  These  diseases 
are  the  most  serious  hindrance  to  the  successful  cultivation  of  flax,  either  for 
seed  or  for  fiber,  but  in  no  way  do  they  affect  the  growth  of  other  field 
crops.  The  most  common  one  is  the  flax  wilt  disease  (Fusarium  lini  BoUey), 
so  called  because  the  plants,  attacked  at  all  ages,  die  as  if  for  want  of  water. 
This  fungus  starts  from  the  infested  soil  or  seed,  and  develops  spores  on  the 
surface  of  the  stems,  and  also  within  the  stems  and  the  seed.  The  remedy 
consists  in  a  rotation  of  crops,  in  which  flax  occurs  only  once  in  eight  years, 
and  the  sowing  of  pure,  well-matured,  clean  seed.  The  North  Dakota  Station,^ 
which  discovered  this  disease,  states  that  all  samples  of  seeds  examined  con- 
tain spores.  Internal  spores  of  diseased  stems  and  seeds  cannot  be  killed  by 
treatment.  Hence  all  bits  of  stems  and  diseased  seeds  must  be  removed,  after 
which  the  pure,  undiseased  seeds  may  be  treated  with  formalin,  as  for  seed 
wheat,  and  oats.  (C.  A.  149)  The  itinerant  threshing  machine  tends  to 
spread  the  infection.  Manure  from  animals  fed  on  flax  straw  must  not  be 
used  where  flax  is  to  be  grown. 

Another  species  of  the  genus  Fusarium,  a  species  of  Collet otrichum  and  of 
Alternaria,  are  destructive  to  flax.  Flax  rust  (Melanospora  lini  (D.  C.)  Tul.), 
recognized  by  the  yellow  or  orange  spots  on  the  older  parts  of  the  nearly 
mature  stems,  is  not  considered  seriously  injurious  to  flax  grown  for  seed. 

496.  Cultural  Methods. — The  culture  of  flax  for  seed  is 
similar  to  that  of  spring  wheat.  For  the  best  results  on  old 
land  rather  deeper  and  more  thorough  preparation  of  the  soil  is 

1  North   Dakota   Sta.   Bui.   No.   50    (1901);   No.   55    (1903). 


392  THE    FORAGE   AND   FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

desirable.  The  seed  should  be  sown  from  one-half  to  one  inch 
deep.  For  the  production  of  fiber,  broadcast  seeding  may  be 
practised.  Great  care  in  obtaining  uniform  distribution  is  de- 
sirable. When  sown  in  drills  the  outer  plants  of  the  drill  row 
are  coarser  and  more  branched  than  the  inner  ones,  and  thus 
materially  reduce  the  uniformity  of  the  product.  Seeding  should 
follow  rather  than  precede  spring  wheat  and  oats. 

Unlike  the  cereals,  the  plant  is  much  modified  by  the  thick- 
ness of  seeding.  When  the  stand  is  thin  the  stems  produce  many 
branches,  and  consequently  many  seeds.  When  sown  sufficiently 
thick,  branches  develop  only  at  the  top,  and  few  seeds  are  pro- 
duced, but  the  fiber  is  of  superior  quality.  When  seed  is  the 
sole  object,  two  or  three  pecks  are  used;  when  both  seed  and 
fiber  are  desired,  twice  the  amount  of  seed  is  employed,  and 
when  fiber  only  is  produced,  three  to  four  times  the  amount  is 
used.  Because  of  the  wilt  disease,  special  care  in  the  selection 
and  treatment  of  the  seed  should  be  observed.     (495) 

Flax  is  an  easy  crop  to  harvest  with  the  self-binder,  is  pleas- 
ant to  handle,  and  is  not  readily  damaged  while  standing  in  the 
shock.  It  may  be  threshed  with  an  ordinary  threshing  ma- 
chine. In  Ontario  the  crop,  when  grown  for  fiber,  is  pulled  by 
hand,  the  work  being  done  by  men,  women,  and  children.  A  man 
may  pull  one-third  of  an  acre  a  day.  The  crop  is  tied  in  small 
bundles,  placed  in  shock,  and  when  dry  sold,  without  removing 
the  seed,  to  the  scutching  mills.  Under  favorable  conditions 
two  to  three  tons  per  acre  are  produced. 

"The  best  flax  is  pulled,  for  the  following  reasons:  (1)  to  secure  straw 
of  full  length;  (2)  to  avoid  stain  and  injury,  which  would  occur  from  soil 
moisture  soaking  into  the  cut  stems  while  curing  in  the  shock;  (3)  to  secure 
better  curing  of  the  straw  and  ripening  of  the  seed;  and  (4)  to  avoid  the 
blunt  cut  ends  of  the  fiber.  Flax  that  has  not  grown  well  enough  to  produce 
first-grade  fiber  is  sometimes  cut  with  a  self-rake  reaper.  After  curing  in  the 
shock  for  two  or  three  weeks  the  seed  is  threshed  out,  usually  by  holding  an 
unbound  bundle  in  the  hands,  and  passing  the  heads  two  or  three  times 
between  rapidly  revolving  rollers  which  crush  the  seed  pods,  the  seed  after- 
wards being  cleaned  in  a  fanning  mill.  The  straw  is  then  bound  into  bundles 
and   stored  until  time   for   retting,  in  October  or  early   November.     Nearly  all 


FIBER    CROPS 


m 


of  the  fiber  flax  grown  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  is  retted  by  spreading 
the  straw  carefully  and  evenly  on  the  ground,  where  it  is  exposed  to  the 
weather  for  two  to  four  weeks.  After  retting,  it  is  raked  up,  tied  in  bundles, 
and  taken  to  the  mills,  where  it  is  broken,  scutched,  and  hackled.  In  each 
of  these  operations  it  is  picked  up  and  handled  in  small  handfuls,  and  some 
of  the  processes,  especially  hackling,  require  a  high  degree  of  skill.  Numerous 
machines  have  been  invented  to  pull  flax,  spread  it  for  retting,  break  it,  and 
scutch  the  fiber,  but  none  of  them  has  given  sufficient  satisfaction  to  be  gen- 
erally adopted.  Until  machines  are  devised  to  take  the  place  of  hand  labor, 
and  reduce  the  cost  of  the  preparation  of  flax  fiber,  there  is  little  probability 
that  the  industry  in  this  country  can  be  increased  in  competition  with  other 
crops  which  may  be  cultivated  with  greater  profit."  ^ 

497.  Production.— While  one  of  the  most  important  fiber 
crops  of  the  world,  flax  is 
grown  in  America  chiefly  for 
its  seed,  the  large  production  of 
which  in  the  United  States  and 
Argentina  has  made  this  one  of 
the  principal  oil-producing 
plants.  The  principal  flax  seed 
producing  states  are  North  Da- 
kota, Minnesota  and  South  Da- 
kota. While  in  the  United  States 
flax  is  a  secondary  crop,  in  Ar- 
gentina it  is  one  of  increasing 
importance.  In  the  year  1902-3 
the  acreage  of  flax  in  Argentina 
was  nearly  equal  to  that  of 
maize,  and  about  one-sixth  the 

total  acreage  of  farm  crops  in  the  same  country.  In  the  same 
year  the  acreage  in  the  United  States  was  3,233,229,  and  in 
Argentina,  3,221,400  acres. 

"Flax,  that  devourer  of  the  richness  of  the  land,  is  a  crop  which,  necessarily, 
must  be  of  a  nomadic  character;  it  cannot  become  a  staple  crop  in  farms 
worked  in  a  regular  manner,  because  it  would  absorb  all  the  strength  of 
the  soil,  and  quickly  produce  sterility.  In  such  cases  it  can  only  be  grown 
at    intervals   of   five   years,    after   a   methodical    rotation   of   crops   calculated  to 


World's  average  production,  9  years, 

78,824,400  bushels 

Diagram  showing  the  percentage  of  the 

world's    production    >,.    flax-seed    by 

countries  for  an   averi'/"  of  9 

years,  1896-1904 


lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook  1903,  pp.  391,  392. 


394  '-THE    FOHAGE   AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

restore  to  the  soil  the  elements  withdrawn  from  it  by  the  flax.  For  the 
present  the  enormovs  area  of  virgin  soil  offers  ample  space  for  the  cultivation 
of  flax.  But  the  afea  of  land  still  to  be  broken  up  will  soon  only  be  found 
in  a  more  distant  i*egion.  So  that  the  cultivation  of  this  crop  will  become, 
pecuniarily,  more  difficult;  however,  it  is,  for  the  time  being,  a  matter  of  large 
figures,  rapidly  increasing,  in  the  bulk  of  our  crops,  and  in  the  profit  which 
its  exportation  returns  in  good  gold  to  our  farmers."  ^ 

The  average  yield  of  flax  seed  in  the  United  States  for  ten 
years,  ending  1905  was,  in  round  numbers,  22  million  bushels, 
and  the  average  farm  price  on  December  i  for  the  four  years 
ended  1905  was  93  cents  per  bushel.  Weight  per  bushel,  sound- 
ness and  uniformity  of  seeds  are  the  principal  factors  in  estab- 
lishing the  grade.  No.  i  northern  grade  must  weigh  51  pounds 
or  more  per  bushel,  and  not  contain  more  than  one-eighth  ''field, 
stock,  storage  or  other  damaged  seeds."  The  usual  legal  weight 
per  bushel  in  Canada  and  the  United  States  is  56  pounds.  Of 
flax  fiber  in  the  world's  commerce,  Europe  is  the  sole  producer. 
Russia  produces  more  than  three-fourths  of  the  crop,  while  of 
the  remaining  ten  countries  producing  the  fiber,  Austria-Hun- 
gary is  the  chief.^ 

498.  History. — The  history  of  flax  is  contemporaneous  with 
that  of  wheat.  The  clothing  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  and  He- 
brews was  largely  made  of  flax,  and  its  culture  was  introduced 
into  Europe  in  remote  times.  Flax  fiber  is  comparatively  much 
less  important  since  the  general  introduction  of  cotton.  It  has 
been  called  the  "fiber  of  luxury,"  while  cotton  has  been  referred 
to  as  the  "fiber  of  the  masses."  Its  use  as  a  source  of  oil  has 
increased  rapidly  within  recent  times. 

II.     HEMP 

499.  Hemp. — (Cannabis  sativa  L.),  a  plant  closely  related  to 
the  hop  and  ramie,  and  belonging  to  the  mulberry  family  (Mo- 
raceae),  is  a  native  of  western  and  central  Asia,  having  been 

1  M.  Bernardez:  The  Argentine  Estancia,  pp.  94,  95. 

2  For  flax  culture  in  Europe,  see  U.  S.  Dcpt.  .\gr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  No.  274; 
also  published  as  Bui.  No.  71  by  North  Dakota  Station. 


FIBER    CROPS 


395 


Hemp  seed.  I  Calyx;  II  outer  surface  of  fruit;  III  lon- 
gitudinal section  of  fruit.  F  pericarp;  S  testa;  E  en- 
dosperm; C  cotyledon;  R  radical.  Three  times  nat- 
ural size. 

(After  Winton) 
The  "seeds"  on  the  market  consist  for  the  most  part 

of  naked  fruit  with  an  occasional  fruit  enclosed  within 

the  hooded  caljrx. 


cultivated  in  China  from  remote  times.  It  is  a  rough,  erect 
annual  8  to  lo,  in  some  cases  12  to  15,  feet  in  height,  with  stam- 
inate  and  pistillate  flowers  on  separate  plants.  The  pistillate 
plants  are  more  branched  than  the  staminate  ones,  and  are  less 
valuable  for  fiber.  The  seeds  on  the  market  consist,  for  the  most 
part,  of  naked  fruits 
or  achenes,  with  an 
occasional  fruit  en- 
closed within  the 
hooded  calyx.  The 
seeds  are  oval,  about 
one-eighth  to  one- 
sixth  inch  long  and 
one-twelfth  inch 
wide.  The  crushed 
seed  emits  a  char- 
acteristic odor.  The 
seed  contains  30  to  35  per  cent,  of  oil,  and  the  yield  of  oil  varies 
according  to  process  from  25  to  32  per  cent.  Like  olive  oil,  it  is 
used  for  culinary  purposes,  and  also  for  burning,  soapmaking, 
and  as  an  ingredient  of  oil  colors  and  varnish.  The  usual  legal 
weight  per  bushel  of  seed  is  44  pounds. 

Hemp  thrives  best  in  a  temperate  climate,  and  may  be  grown 
on  any  soil  adapted  to  maize.  Where  the  waste  products  are 
returned  to  the  land,  it  is  not  considered  an  exhaustive  crop. 
In  some  places  it  is  grown  continuously  for  many  years  on  the 
same  land.  This,  however,  is  not  a  desirable  practise,  if  for  no 
other  reason  than  on  account  of  the  possible  attacks  from  broom- 
rape  (Orobanche  ramosa  L.),  a  parasitic  plant  which  is  some- 
times quite  destructive  to  hemp,  and  for  which  a  rotation  of 
crops  is  the  best  known  preventive.  In  America,  hemp  is  raised 
chiefly  in  the  blue  grass  region  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  al- 
though it  has  been  grown  successfully  in  more  northern  states. 
It  is  usually  sown  broadcast  at  the  rate  of  four  to  six  pecks  per 


^ 


39^  THE    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

acre  between  oat  sowing  and  maize  planting.  It  fully  subdues 
all  weeds. 

Hemp  is  considered  ready  to  harvest  when  the  first  ripe  seed 
is  found  in  the  head,  which  requires  about  loo  days.  The  har- 
vesting depends  somewhat  upon  the  rankness  of  growth.  Hemp 
is  cut  with  a  mower  or  self-rake  reaper  when  not  too  large,  or 
by  hand,  as  in  the  case  of  maize.  Jt  is  allowed  to  lie  on  the 
ground  until  retted  or  rotted  by  dews  and  rains,  when  it  is 
shocked  or  tied  in  bundles  and  stacked.  In  some  cases  the  hemp 
is  broken  in  the  field,  thus  leaving  the  waste  products  upon  the 
soil;  in  other  cases  it  is  carried  to  a  central  place  where  more 
rapid  machinery  is  used.  The  yield  of  fiber  may  be  from 
500  to  1,500  pounds,  and  of  seed  from  10  to  30  bushels  per  acre. 
When  grown  for  seed,  hemp  is  planted  like  maize,  at  the  rate  of 
two  quarts  per  acre.  When  retted  by  dews  and  rains,  as  is  the 
custom  in  this  country,  the  fiber  is  gray  and  somewhat  harsh, 
but  when  retted  in  water,  as  in  Italy,  the  fiber  is  creamy  white, 
lustrous,  soft  and  pliable. 

Hemp  is  raised  in  this  country  for  its  fiber,  but  it  is  widely 
raised  elsewhere  also  for  its  oily  seed  and  for  the  resinous  exu- 
dation from  its  leaves  and  stems,  from  which  intoxicating  prep- 
arations are  made.  The  hemp  fiber  raised  in  this  country  is 
used  chiefly  for  cordage  and  warp  for  carpets. 

III.    JUTE 

500.  Jute  fiber  is  obtained  from  two  closely  related  annual  plants  (Chor- 
chorus  capsularis  L.  and  C.  olitorius  L.),  belonging  to  the  linden  family  and 
native  of  Asia.  In  general,  they  resemble  hemp.  The  first  form  grows  nine 
to  ten  feet  high,  and  has  short,  globular  seed  pods,  while  the  second,  nalta 
jute,  is  smaller  and  has  elongated,  cylindrical  pods.  The  bast  fibers  of  both 
are  practically  the  same.  The  leaves  of  the  nalta  jute  are  also  used  as 
a  vegetable. 

Jute  may  be  successfully  grown  in  the  cotton  belt.  These  plants  prefer 
a  moist,  warm  climate,  and  rich,  alluvial  soils.  Seed  may  be  sown  broadcast 
about  the  same  time  as  cotton,  using  15  to  20  pounds  of  seed  per  acre,  or 
may  be  started  in  beds  and  subsequently  transplanted.  Plants  are  harvested 
by   cutting   close   to    the   ground    or   pulling   up   by   the   roots.     Jute    will    not 


FIBER    CROPS  397 

become   an  established  industry  in   America   until   some   means   of  economically 
extracting  the  fiber  from  the  stalk  has  been  devised. 

Jute  is  principally  cultivated  in  Bengal,  India,  and  is  largely  exported  to 
this  country,  being  the  cheapest  fiber  used  in  American  textile  manufacture, 
and  used  more  largely  than  any  other,  except  cotton  and  sisal.  It  is  usually 
employed  for  cotton  bale  covering,  bagging,  twine,  and  carpets.  When  ex- 
posed to  moisture,  fabrics  made  from  jute  soon  lose  their  strength  because 
the  material  which  cements  the  cells  together  is  dissolved.  The  fiber  in  the 
lower  5  to  25  inches  of  the  stalk  being  coarse,  is  cut  off  and  sold  at  an 
inferior  price  under  the  name  of  jute  butts,  while  the  remainder  of  the 
fiber — finer,   softer,   and  more   easily  spun — is  sold  as  jute  fiber. 

IV.     RAMIE 

501.  Ramie  (Boehmeria  nivea  Gaud.)  is  a  perennial  shrub  with  herbaceous 
shoots,  belonging  to  the  nettle  family.  It  somewhat  resembles  hemp  in  gen- 
eral growth  and  appearance.  It  is  an  inter-tropical  plant,  and  grows  readily 
in  the  Gulf  states  where  a  good  supply  of  moisture,  coupled  with  thorough 
drainage,  is  obtainable.  It  has  been  grown  in  this  country  in  an  experimental 
way  only. 

The  plant  may  be  propagated  by  seeds,  cuttings,  or  division  of  roots.  If 
by  seeds,  the  plants  are  started  in  hotbeds.  Cuttings  of  the  ripened  wood, 
including  three  buds,  are  set  like  willow  cuttings,  with  the  middle  bud  at  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  Propagation  by  division  of  the  roots  of  the  fully 
matured  plants  is  recommended  for  this  country.  The  plants  should  be  placed 
about  as  thickly  as  the  hills  of  maize. 

It  has  been  grown  in  eastern  Asia  from  remote  times  in  a  limited  way. 
The  fiber  is  there  extracted  by  hand  by  a  slow  and  tedious  process,  and  is 
used  for  cordage  and  other  coarse  manufactures  as  well  as  for  making  textiles 
of  great  fineness  and  beauty.  It  can  never  become  an  important  industry 
until  some  machine  is  brought  into  use  which  will  economically  extract  the 
fiber  from  its  green,  tough,  and  gummy   bark. 

V.     MANILA    FIBER 

502.  Manila  Fiber  or  Abaca  {Musa  textilis  Nee),  usually 
called  manila  hemp,  is  a  hard  or  structural  fiber  coming  from 
one  or  more  perennial  species  belonging  to  the  same  genus  as 
the  common  banana,  and  which  occur  only  in  restricted  areas 
in  the  Philippines.  The  plant  requires  abundant  rainfall,  a 
moist  atmosphere  and  a  well-drained  soil. 

The  plants  are  propagated  from  suckers  or  seeds,  chiefly  the 
former,  set  in  hills  five  to  eight  feet  apart.    They  require  no  cul- 


398 


THE    FORAGE    x\i\D    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 


tivation,  since  the  rapid  growth  soon  shades  the  ground.  Small 
shrubs  which  sometimes  occur  are  cut  out  with  bolos.  Planta- 
tions thus  started  may  last  for  generations.  The  plant  is  har- 
vested as  soon  as  the  flower  bud  appears, — about  three  years 
from  planting  when  propagated  by  cuttings,  and  about  five 
years  when  seeds  are  sown.  The  plant  attains  a  height  of  8  to 
20  feet,  and  the  leaf  sheaves  of  which  the  stems  are  chiefly  com- 
posed are  5  to  12  feet  in 
length.  As  soon  as  cut,  the 
leaves  are  divided  into  thin 
strips  and  drawn  by  hand 
under  a  knife  held  by  a 
spring  against  a  piece  of 
wood,  which  scrapes  away 
the  pulp.  One  laborer  may 
harvest  about  25  pounds  of 
fiber  a  day.  A  fair  yield 
of  fiber  is  estimated  at  from 
350  to  500  pounds  per  acre 
annually.  The  average 
yield  of  the  cultivated  area 
in  the  Philippines,  in  1902, 
was  approximately  275 
pounds  per  acre.  The  pro- 
duction of  manila  fiber  is 
the  most  important  industry 
of  the  Philippines,  and  constitutes  more  than  half  the  value  of 
the  exports. 

"The  best  grade  of  manila  fiber  is  of  a  light  buff  color,  lustrous  and  very 
s  rong,  in  fine,  even  strands  6  to  12  feet  in  length.  Poorer  grades  are  coarser 
and  duller  in  color,  some  of  them  yellow  or  even  dark  brown,  and  lacking  in 
strength.  The  better  grades  are  regarded  as  the  only  satisfactory  material 
known  in  commerce  for  making  hawsers,  ships'  cables,  and  other  marine 
cordage  which  may  be  exposed  to  salt  water,  or  for  well-drilling  cables,  hoisting 
ropes,  and  transmission  ropes  to  be  used  where  great  strength  and  flexibility 
are    required.      The    best    grade    of    binder    twine    is    made    from    manila    fiber, 


Manila  fiber.    Native  Tagalog  woman,  about 

five  feet  tall 

(From  photo  by  Gilmore) 


1-I15KR    CKOIS  ^QQ 

since  ownp  to  its  greater  strength  it  can  be  made  up  at  650  feet  to  the  pound 
as  compared  with   sisal  at   500  feet."  ^ 

VI.     SISAL 

503.    Sisal. — Several   species  of  the  genus  Agave,  to  which 
the    century    plant    belongs,    have    been    cultivated    in    Central 


Carrying  hemp.    Manila 
(From  photo  by  Gilmore) 

America  for  many  hundred  years,  the  most  highly  prized  and 

the  source  of  commercial   fiber  being  the   sisal   plant    (Agave 

rigida  Miller),  known  in  Spanish  speaking  countries  as  henequin. 

The  fiber  is  a  structural  or  hard  fiber,  and  is  obtained  from 

'  U.    S.   Dcpt.    Agr.   Yearbook    1903,    p.   395. 


4-00  THK    FORAGE    AND    FIBER    CROPS    IN    AMERICA 

the  large,  thick  leaves  by  crushing  with  machinery,  the  most 
improved  types  of  which  will  crusli  150,000  leaves  daily.  A 
thousand  leaves  are  estimated  to  produce  50  pounds  of  fiber. 
Under  favorable  conditions  a  yield  of  600  to  1,200  pounds  of 
fiber  per  acre  may  be  obtained.  The  fiber  is  yellowish  white, 
two  and  a  half  to  four  feet  in  length,  harsh  and  lacking  in  flexi- 
bility and  easily  decomposed  by  salt  water.  Next  to  cotton,  it  is 
the  most  extensively  used  fiber  in  the  United  States,  being  used 
principally  for  binder  twine  and  for  mixing  with  manila  fiber 
in  the  manufacture  of  cordage  of  various  sizes.  Door  mats  and 
other  coarse  floor  matting  are  made  largely  of  sisal.  Yucatan 
sisal  is  shipped  in  bales  weighing  from  350  to  400  pounds. 

The  sisal  is  a  tropical  plant  growing  on  barren,  rocky  land, 
useless  for  other  agricultural  purposes.  It  develops  best  in  a 
limestone  soil  and  a  comparatively  dry  climate.  Its  cultivation 
is  confined  almost  exclusively  to  Yucatan,  the  West  Indian 
Islands,  and  Hawaii,  the  former  being  by  far  the  chief  source  of 
the  commercial  fiber. 

"The  sisal  plant  is  propagated  by  suckers  springing  from  the  roots  of  old 
plants,  or  from  bulbils.  Bulbils,  called  'mast  plants,'  are  produced  in  great 
numbers  on  the  flower  stalks  in  place  of  seed  pods,  like  onion  sets.  The  plants 
are  set  out  during  the  rainy  season,  in  rows  four  to  eight  feet  apart,  in  holes 
dug  in  partly  disintegrated  coral  or  lime  rock  with  crowbars,  pickaxes,  and 
sometimes  with  the  aid  of  dynamite.  The  ground  where  sisal  is  grown  is 
usually  too  rocky  to  permit  any  stirring  of  the  soil.  About  the  only  care 
given  is  to  cut  the  brush  and  weeds  once  or  twice  each  year.  The  weeds  and 
brush,  largely  leguminous  plants,  by  decaying  on  the  ground  add  fertility 
to  the  soil.  The  first  crop  of  outer  leaves  of  the  plants  is  cut  at  the  end 
of  three  years  when  grown  from  suckers,  or  four  years  when  grown  from 
mast  plants.  From  ten  to  twenty  leaves  are  produced  each  year  for  a  period 
of  twelve  to  twenty-five  years  in  Yucatan,  ten  to  fifteen  years  in  Cuba,  and 
six  to  twelve  years  in  the  Bahamas.  An  unusually  cold  winter  at  any  period 
tends  to  check  growth  and  cause  the  plants  to  send  up  flower  stalks,  after 
which  they  die."  ^ 

VII.     MAGUEY 
504.     The   Maguey   Plant    (Agave  cantula  Roxb.,   A.   vivipara  L.)    has  the 
same   habits   of  growth,   and   is   propagated   by   the   same   methods  as   the   sisal 

lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook  1903,  pp.  395,  396. 


Fir.KR    CROPS  401 

plant,  to  which  it  is  closely  related.  Like  the  sisal  plant,  it  is  adapted  to  a 
tropical   dry  climate   and  a  thin,    rt)cky  limestone  soil. 

"The  henequin  of  Yucatan,  Agave  rigida  clongata  Baker,  the  sisal  of  Hawaii, 
Agave  rigida  sisalana  Engelmann;  and  the  maguey  of  the  Philippine  Islands, 
recently  identified  at  the  Royal  Botanic  Gardens,  Kew,  as  Agave  cantula,  are 
very  similar  plants.  All  have  the  short,  thick  stem;  the  aloe-like  cluster  of 
large,  fleshy  leaves;  and  the  tall  flower  stalk,  or  'pole,'  which  bears  a  large 
number  of  small  bulbils,  or  pole  plants.  The  Hawaiian  plant  differs  from 
that  of  Yucatan  in  having  a  shorter  trunk;  leaves  smooth-edged,  or  bearing 
a  few  unequal  teeth;  and  the  fiber  less  in  quantity,  but  superior  in  quality. 
The  Philippine  maguey  plant  has  a  short  trunk;  leaves  from  4  to  6  feet  long, 
from  254  inches  wide  at  the  base  to  4  inches  wide  at  the  middle,  and  about 
1  inch  thick  at  the  base;  lateral  teeth  three-fourths  to  1^  inches  apart;  dark- 
brown  terminal  spine  one-half  inch  long;  and  fiber  fine,  white,  and  longer, 
but  less  in  quantity  than  either  the  Yucatan  or  the  Hawaiian  varieties."  * 

While  native  of  Mexico,  it  is  now  grown  in  a  minor  way  in  nearly  every 
province  of  the  Philippine  islands.  The  production  of  maguey  fiber,  known 
in  England  as  manila  aloe,  is  small  compared  with  manila  fiber  in  the  Philip- 
pines, or  sisal  in  Yucatan.  The  production  is  increasing,  however,  and  it  is 
believed  that  by  the  introduction  of  sisal  breaking  machinery  to  take  the 
place  of  salt  water  retting  and  hand  cleaning,  the  production  may  be  greatly 
increased,  and  the  quality  somewhat  improved.  It  is  generally  used  for  the 
same  purposes  as  sisal,  and  sells  for   slightly  less  per   pound. 

VIII.     ISTLE 

505.  IsTLE  or  Tampico  fiber  is  produced  by  four  or  five  different  species 
of  plants  closely  related  to  sisal  growing  wild  on  the  arid  table  lands  of 
northern  Mexico,  and  southern  Texas,  and  New  Mexico.  There  are  three 
types  of  this  fiber  recognized — namely,  (1)  Jaumave  istle  (Agave  lophantha 
Schiede),  20  to  40  inches  long,  almost  white,  and  nearly  as  flexible  as  sisal; 
(2)  Tula  istle  (principally  from  Lamnella  carnerosana),  twelve  to  thirty 
inches  long,  coarser,  and  less  flexible;  and  (3)  Palma  istle  (Agave  lecheguiUa 
Torr.),  15  to  30  inches  long,  coarse,  stiff,  yellow  in  color  and  somewhat  gummy. 
Originally  used  only  for  the  manufacture  of  brushes,  it  has  lately  been 
employed  for  mixing  with  other  fibers  in  the  manufacture  of  the  cheaper 
grades  of  twine  and  larger  cordage. 

IX.     NEW   ZEALAND   HEMP 

506.  New  Zealand  Hemp  (Phormium  tenax  L.),  sometimes  called  New 
Zealand  flax,  produces  a  hard  or  structural  fiber.  It  has  been  tried  experi- 
mentally at  the  California  Station,  and  is  sometimes  grown  on  the  Pacific 
coast  as  an  ornamental  plant,  but  has  never  been  grown  commercially  in 
America.     The  commercial  supply  of  fiber  comes  exclusively  from  New  Zealand. 

1  Dept.  Interior,  Bureau  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bui.  No  13  (1906),  pp.  11,  12. 


402  Till:    l-OKAGr:    AND    liDER    CKOl'S    IX    AM  F.RICA 

507.  CoLi^TERAL  Reading. — C.  R.  Dodge:  Report  on  Flax,  Hemp,  Ramie, 
and  Jute.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr„  Div.  Stat.  Report  No.   1,   1890. 

C.  R.  Dodge:  A  Report  on  Flax  Culture  for  Seed  and  Fiber  in  Europe 
and  America.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Fiber  Investigations  Report  No. 
10,  pp.  37-61,   1898. 

Wm.  Saunders:  Flax.  Dept.  Agr.,  Central  Expt.  Farm,  Ottawa,  Can.,  Bui. 
No.   25,    1896. 

Harry  Snyder:  The  Draft  of  Flax  on  the  Soil.  Minnesota  Station  Bui. 
No.   47,    1896. 

H.  L.  Bolley:  Flax  and  Flaxseed  Selection.  North  Dakota  Station  Bui. 
No.  55,  1903. 

Lyster  H.  Dewey:  Principal  Commercial  l^lant  Fibers.  In  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.  Yearbook  1903,  pp.  390-8. 

John  Geddes  Mcintosh:  The  Manufacture  of  \'arnishes  and  Kindred  In- 
dustries,  Vol.   I,   pp.   94-145.      New   York:    D.   Van   Nostrand   Co.,    1904. 

The   Upson-Walton  Co.:    Rope.      Cleveland,   Ohio:    The   Author,    1902, 

John  W.  Gilmore:  Preliminary  Report  on  the  Commercial  Fibers  of  the 
Philippines.  Philippine  Bureau  of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bui.  No.  4.  Manila, 
1903. 

C.  R.  Dodge:  Sisal  Hemp  Culture.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Div.  Stat.,  Fiber 
Investigations   Report   No.    3,    1891. 

H.  T.  Edwards:  The  Cultivation  of  Maguey  in  the  Philippine  Islands. 
Dept.  Interior,  Bu.  Agr.,   F^armers'   Bui.   No.   13,    1906. 

Mariano  Abella:  Cultivation  of  Abaca.  In  the  Census  of  the  Philippine 
Islands,  Vol.  IV  (1903),  pp.  20-4.  Washington:  United  States  Bureau  of  the 
Census,   1905. 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Abaca    397 

Acquirement    of    nitrogen    with- 
out  legumes    128 

Acreage,    annual    forage   plants.  HI 

Adaptability    in   grass    mixtures.  21 

Adulterants    17 

Adulterations,    red    clover 145 

Agave  cantula 400 

rigida 399 

Agropyron  spicatum    25 

Agrostidea,    distinguishing 3 

importance    I 

relationships     ".  .  .  .  2 

Agrostis   alba    66 

canina    66 

Chase   on    67 

forms     66 

Hitchcock   on    67 

in    New    England 24 

Olcott  on    67 

relationships     2 

Alfalfa    174 

adaptation    183 

after    treatment 187 

animal    pests 193 

bees,    visitation....... 177 

comparative    digestibility...  197 

conditions   affecting   success  184 

distribution    182 

dodder     179 

extermination    181 

etymology     174 

feeding   value 198 

fungous    diseases 191 

field    dodder 179 

Grimm     181 

in    north 182 

habit  of  growth 175 

hay,    curing 195 

time    of    cutting 194 

history 199 

honey  bees,  visitation 177 

in    Argentina 183 

inflorescence    ,  177 

insects   192 

in    west 183 

number  of  cuttings 194 

nurse    crop 187,  190 

on   calcareous   soils 184 

pastures    198 

quantity   of    seed 188 

relationships 174 

root-rot    192 

roots    174 

root-tubercles     175 

rotations   188 

seed 178 

adulterations    179 

germination    181 

harvesting 196 


PAGE 

Alfalfa    seed,    impurities 179 

purity    181 

source    196 

seeding  method 189 

rate    189 

time    189 

seeds  to  pound 178 

silage   195 

soil    inoculation 186 

treatment    184 

Turkestan   181 

introduction   182 

value    197 

varieties    181 

water    requirement 187 

weeds 191 

weight  per  bushel  seed 178 

Alopecurus   pratensis 62 

relationships 2 

Alsike   clover 1 62 

description    162 

flower    heads 162 

germination    164 

history 165 

ill  effect... 164 

maturity,  time 163 

purity    164 

relationships 162 

seed   164 

seeding    164 

seeds  to  pound 164 

value   163 

Anaerobic   ferment 128 

Analyses  and  feeding  value 13 

.4ndropogoneae,  native 25 

.4ndropogon  provincialis 25 

Ankee   116 

Annual  forage  plants Ill 

acreage   Ill 

Anthoxanthum,   relationships....  2 

odoratutn    101 

Anthracnose,   description 226 

Anthyllis  zmlneraria 214 

Arachis  hypogaea 219 

Arrhenatherum  elaiius   100 

relationships 2 

Asexual  reproduction  in  grasses  4 

Atriplex    119 

Avena,    relationships 2 

Aveneae,    relationships 2 

Awnless  brome  grass 93 

Azotobacter    beyerincki 128 

chroococcum    128 

vinelandii   128 

Bacillus  radicicola 127,  128 

Back  setting  defined 391 

Bacteria,  adaptability  to  host...  129 

dissemination   129 

longevity 129 

W.   Va.   Station   131 

403 


404 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Baling   hay 48 

Bast  fibers  defined 306 

Barnyard   grass 116 

millet 116 

Bean   219 

Bees,   visiting   alfalfa 177 

Beet,  adaptation 280 

bolt 283 

description    276 

histology   277 

insects  . .  , 282 

leaf -spot    282 

root  systen 211 

scab   282 

seed  defined 283 

production    287 

single-germ 285 

types   276 

Beets,   cultivatioi 285 

distance  apart 284 

fungous  diseases 282 

harvesting 285 

preparation  of  the  soil 282 

rotation  . .  . . , 281 

seeding 283 

thinning    284 

Bermuda  grass . . , 97 

adaptation 98 

description    97 

in  cotton   staxes 24 

propagation    98 

relationships 2 

seed 98 

seeding   time 98 

seeds  to  pound 98 

value    99 

variety   for  lawn 99 

Berseem    ,  , 1 72 

Beta  vulgaris 276 

Bird's-foot  trefoil,    212 

Black    medic 201 

adaptation    . .  ,.  , 202 

description    . . , , 201 

seed 202 

adulterant    202 

in  alfalfa  .leed 179 

seeding  rate 203 

Black  rot 293 

Bloat  due  to  legunus 10 

Blue  grass 71 

relationships 2 

Blue  joint,  relations  lips 2 

Blue  stem,  big,  a  mtive  grass..      25 

Boehmeria    nivea 397 

Bouteloua  oligostachya 25 

relationships    . 2 

Brachypodeae,   relationships 2 

Brachy podium,   relationships ....        2 

Brassica  napus 295 

types 289 

Brisa,   relationships 2 

Brome   grass 93 

Brotnus  inernis 93 

relationships 2 

Unioloides 93 

Broom  corn  millet 115 

Broom-rape   151,  395 


PAGE 

Buffalo  grass  in  west 24 

relationships 2 

Bunch  grass,  in  west 24 

relationships 2 

Bur  clover,  culture 204 

Bur  clovers 203 

distribution     203 

Cabbage    290 

harlequin  bug 294 

looper    294 

maggot    294 

plant    louse 294 

seeds  to  pound 292 

worm 294 

Cabbages,  distance  apart 292 

plants  to  acre 292 

yields 286 

Calamagrostis  canadensis   in  west  24 

relationships    2 

Calculating   mixtures 22 

California  millet 114 

Canada  blue  grass 71 

a   weed 72 

recommendations    12 

seed  an  adulterant 74 

source    80 

Canary  grass,   relationships 2 

Cannabis   safi-i'a    394 

Capriola   dactylon 97 

Carnation    clover 168 

Carolina   clover 162 

Carrot   298 

adaptation    299 

root    section 298 

varieties    classified 298 

Carrots,   cultural   methods 299 

for    horses 295 

germination   299 

seeding    299 

seeds  to  pound 299 

yields     299 

Caryopsis   defined 20 

Cassava   300 

Cereals  for  forage,  treatise 1 

Chaetochloa    italica 112 

viridis   114 

Characters,  common   in   grasses.  6 

distinguishing   grasses 8 

forage   grasses 1 

Chinese   yam 300 

Chipmunk   193 

Chlorideae,   native 25 

relationships 2 

Chorchorus 396 

Chufa    300 

Climate  and  fertilizers   32 

and  forage  grasses 33 

Clipping    pastures 36 

Clostridium    pastenrianum 128 

Clover,  cause  of   slobbers 166 

curing    154,  160 

dodder 179 

failure,  causes 152 

fertilizers   149 

fungous  diseases 152 

hay 154 

hullers 156 


INDEX 


405 


PAGE 

Clover    leaf    weevil 153 

midge    154 

root    borer 153 

sickness 151 

Clovers   140 

economic 140 

introduced   species 141 

native    140 

relationships     140 

treatise    142 

western   species 141 

Club-root    293 

Cocksfoot    81 

Collateral  reading,  Chapter  1 . . .      26 

Chapter  2 51 

Chapter   3 64 

Chapter  4 80 

Chapter   5 109 

Chapter   6 119 

Chapter   7 138 

Chapter  8 161 

Chapter  9 173 

Chapter    10 200 

Chapter    11 218 

Chapter    12 240 

Chapter   13 256 

Chapter   14 274 

Chapter   15 303 

Chapter    16 310 

Chapter    17 324 

Chapter    18 339 

Chapter   19 350 

Chapter  20 363 

Chapter  21 375 

Chapter  22 386 

Chapter  23 402 

Colorado   grass 117 

Composition    of    hay    of    forage 

grasses    13 

Composting  for  cotton ,•  •  •  •   347 

Cornell     Station     on     fertilizing 

timothy  meadows 34 

longevity  of  plants 30 

timothy   seed   selection.  ....      54 
propagating    individual    tim- 
othy plants 56 

Cost    a     feature     of     cultivated 

grasses    12 

Cotton,  American  upland 326 

anthracnose    363 

bale,  standard  size 370 

weight   370 

belt    351 

black    rust 363 

boll  weevil,  Mexican 359 

worm 360 

breeding    335 

bolls 314 

per    plant _ 314 

carriers   of   fertilizer  ingre- 
dients        346 

characters  important 373 

climate    340 

commercial  bale,  weight....   375 

grades  373 

value  272 

composition 311,  322 


PAGE 

Cotton,  composting   347 

count    defined 376 

counts   per   pound 377 

cover   crops 345 

crop  of  the  world 364 

crossing    334 

prevention    335 

cultivation    356 

cultural    methods 351 

desirable   characters 333 

diseases 361 

distribution    340 

economic   importance 376 

Egyptian     327 

environment,  influence 2ii7 

exports    367 

export    trade 367 

fertilizers,    applying 349 

influence 346 

kinds  and  quantities...  348 

fiber,   structure 320 

flowering  time 351 

flowers    313 

fungous  diseases 361 

gin,  date  of  invention 384 

standard   size 371 

ginnery    presses 370 

ginning   371 

cost    372 

gins   369 

delinter   372 

grades  and  prices 374 

defined  and  illustrated.  373 

principal    373 

hank  defined 376 

history 384 

hoeings,   number 356 

imports   368 

improvement    335 

India   326 

industry,  development 365 

insects 3S8 

in  United  States 364 

kind  of  seed  to  plant 353 

lands,    deterioration 343 

lint 317 

classes   317 

comparative    diameters.  318 

lengths    317 

qualities    321 

„       yield    333 

linters   321 

lock   316 

manufactories    377 

marketing 364 

seed    cotton 372 

merchants 372 

Peruvian    328 

picking    367 

machine,  difficulties 357 

payment    358 

•  pickings,   number 358 

plant,  description 312 

dry   matter 383 

proportion  of  parts 321 

planting  methods 355 

practicums    384-386 


4o6 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Cotton,  preparing  seed-bed.....    352 

presses,   forms 370 

price    375 

production    364 

annual 365 

center    366 

per    population 366 

products,    valuation Zll 

public  ginnery 371 

qualities    sought 333 

quantity  of  seed  to  plant.  .  .   354 

rainfall    342 

relationships     311 

root  knot 362 

roots 311 

medicinal  properties....    312 

rotation 344 

rows,  barring  off 356 

distance  apart 355 

rust , .   363 

saw  gin,  invention 369 

scale  of  qualities 337 

score  card '^'i^ 

score  of   points 338 

sea  island. 326 

soil 343 

seasons    of    cultural    opera- 
tions       351 

seed    316,  378 

as  fertilizer 379 

bed,  fall  preparation...   353 

histology    316 

mixing 354 

selection    335 

uses  379 

weight  per  bushel 316 

seeding  rate 354 

seeds   per   bushel 354 

per    pound 316 

shipping    districts 368 

soils    ..    342 

species 325 

spindles  in  operation 377 

in  United  States 377 

stalks, ^ 383 

statistics,   world's 378 

storing     372 

structure   311 

subsoiling    353 

temperature    340 

tillage,    intercultural 356 

topping    357 

uses    376 

utilizing,    method 376 

varieties    325 

big   boll.. 330 

classification   328 

cluster    330 

long  limb 331 

long    staple 331 

Rio   Grande 330 

semi-cluster    330 

short    limb 330 

standard    331 

vegetative   portion 312 

weather  during  picking 342 

•    requirements   340 


PAGE 
Cotton,  weight  of  seed  cotton..    333 

wilt    362 

worm   360 

yield    374 

by    pickings 358 

comparative,    table 331 

seed    cotton 334 

Cotton-seed   hulls 383 

meal 381 

composition    382 

manufacture    378 

use   381 

oil     379 

oil  mills   380 

products  mills 379 

Cow    clover 159 

Cowpea  diseases 254 

distribution     248 

hay,    curing 257,  260 

pasture    262 

root-gall    255 

root  knot 255 

silage,    digestibility 247 

value   262 

variations    due    to    environ- 
ment       243 

wilt    255 

Cowpeas    241 

acquirement  of  nitrogen....    264 

adaptation     248 

classification   244 

common    characters 241 

composition    247 

cooking  recipes 262 

cross-fertilization     246 

cultivation    253 

curing  hay 260 

feeding  test,  Alabama 263 

Kansas    263 

Maryland    263 

New    Jersey 264 

Oklahoma    263 

Tennessee 264 

feeding    value 263 

fertilizers    250 

,   history    268 

influence   on  other  crojis.  .  .    266 

inoculation    249 

insect  enemies 254 

method  of  harvesting 259 

seeding    253 

utilizing  the  crop 267 

mixtures   252 

nomenclature   245 

production 261 

quantity  of  seed 252 

relationships    241 

roots    241 

rotations   250 

seed,  color 243 

different   sources 244 

seeding    method 253 

rate    252 

time    251 

seeds  per  bushel 242 

time  of  harvesting 257 

seeding   251 


INDEX 


407 


PAGE 

Cowpeas,  types 243 

use    261 

variable    characters 242 

varieties,   Alabama 245 

Arkansas    245 

Delaware    246 

early    243 

Georgia   245 

Illinois    245 

Kansas    246 

late 243 

Louisiana    246 

Mississippi    246 

New  Jersey 246 

North    Carolina 246 

Rhode    Island 246 

Tennessee     245 

Texas    246 

Virginia    246 

yield    261 

hay,  and  seed. 262 

influence   of   rainfall...    249 

Crab    grass 117 

Creeping    bent 66 

Crested  dogstail,   relationships..        2 

Crimson   clover 168 

adaptation    169 

description    168 

distribution     169 

germination    170 

history     171 

puritj    170 

relationships    168 

seed    170 

seeding    171 

seeds  to  pound 170 

value    169 

varieties    169 

Culm,  mode  of  growth 4 

relation   to   parent 3 

Culms,  manner  of  growth 8 

position    3 

Cultivated  forms  of  grasses....       2 

Cuscuta   arvensis 151,   179 

epithymum    151,  180 

trifoUi    151,   179 

Cynosiirus,    relationships 2 

Cyperus   esculentus 300 

Dactylis   glomerata 81 

relationships    2 

Danthonia,     relationships 2 

Daucus  carota 298 

Denitrifying  organisms 132 

Density  in  hay 48 

Derricks,   swinging  hay 45 

Deschampsia  caespitosa  in  west.     24 

relationships     2 

Desmodium    tortuosuin 211 

Digestibility  of  hay 15 

Digestion,   energy 15 

experiments  with  hay 15 

Dioscorea   batatas 300 

divaricata    300 

Dissemination  of  bacteria...'...    129 

Dodder,   field 151 

large    seeded 151 

small   seeded 151 


PAGE 

Dodder,     small     seeded,     winter 

hosts    181 

Dolichos   lablab 219 

scsquipedalis    219 

sinensis   241 

Duration  of  forage  grasses 3 

pastures  .  .  •  •  ; 31 

Energy  of  digestion 15 

mastication   15 

English  blue  grass 88 

Eragrosteae,    relationships 2 

Erigeron   151 

Esparsette    .•••••. ^14 

Euagrosteae,   relationships 2 

Euchlaena   mexicana. 118 

Eufestuceae,   relationships 2 

Extra  vaginal,    examples 4 

Fertilizer  ingredients  in  legumes  136 

Fertilizers,    application 34 

commercial  factors 33 

cumulative  effect 34 

relation  with   climate 2 

stand  of   grass 33 

on    clover 1 49 

grasses    32 

Fertilizing  elements 31 

Fescue,  kinds  of  seed  on  markets     89 

Fescues  in  east 24 

relationships    2 

Festuca,    distinction 74 

distribution    91 

duriuscula    89 

elatior   88 

octoHora    90 

ovina   89 

relationships    2 

Festuceae,    importance 1 

relationships    2 

Fiber  crops 304 

classification 304 

by    source 306 

spinnintr  units 306 

use    305 

materials  for  fibers 304 

production    304 

sources  of  fibers 304 

Fiber  plants,  number 308 

production    308 

Fibers,  animal,  test 307 

cotton,   recognition 308 

identification    307 

tensile  strength 319 

vegetable,   test 307 

woolen,  recognition 308 

Field  beans 219 

adaptation 223 

anthracnose 225,  226 

blight 227 

classification 222 

common    characters 221 

cooperative  experiments....   222 

culture    224 

purpose   220 

diseases 226 

distribution    222 

downy  mildew 227 

harvesting    225 

history    229 


4o8 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Field  beans,  in  Canada 222 

planting    224 

production    222 

relationships    219 

rust    227 

seeds  to  pound 224 

soil   223 

threshing    228 

use   229 

variable   characters 221 

varieties    221 

weight   per  bushel 222 

yield    222 

Field   peas 230 

adaptation 232 

description    230 

diseases     233 

distribution    231 

harvesting    234 

insects     233 

relationships    230 

seeding   232 

uses 234 

varieties    231 

Finger-and-toe   293 

Flax,  adaptation 390 

cultural  methods 391 

description   387 

diseases 391 

harvesting    392 

history     394 

in  Argentina 393 

perennial    387 

pioneer   crop 390 

production    393 

relationships    387 

retting     390 

Rocky  Mountain 387 

sick   soil 391 

stem,   histology 389 

threshing    392 

^,     yield    392 

Flax  fiber 389 

commercial   forms 390 

production,   region 390 

Flax   seed 387 

analysis 388 

germination    388 

grade,   fixing 394 

oil    389 

yield    389 

price    394 

states   producing 393 

viability     388 

weight  per  bushel 394 

_,     yield    394 

Flea  beetle,  wavy  striped 294 

Flemish    proverb 30 

Floating  fescue 90 

Florida  beggar  weed 211 

Flowering    glume    a     means    of 

identifying    seeds 20 

Flowers  of  the  grasses 6 

Forage    gi-asses,    characters    and 

habits    1 

composition  of  hay 13 

cultivated   or   useful   forms.        2 


PAGE 

Forage   grasses,   duration 3 

important   perennial 1 

perennial     1 

cultural    methods 27 

designation 1 

relationships    1,  2 

Form  of  tubercle  organism 127 

Fowl    meadow   grass 73 

Foxtail    millet 112 

Fraser  on  old  lands  grass 72 

Germination  of  seeds 20 

rubbing   assists 21 

scratching   assists 21 

test,    method 21 

Glyceria,   relationships 2 

Glycine   hispida 219 

Golden    millet 114 

Gossypium    311 

barbadense   326 

herbaceum    326 

hirsutum   326 

peruvianum    328 

Grama,  blue,  a  native  grass....  25 

grass  in  west 24 

relationships    2 

Gramineae    1 

Grass   family 1 

mixtures    21 

desirability    21 

ulterior   purpose 17 

plants   monocarpic 6 

seed  test,  time 20 

Grasses,  anthers 6 

common    characters 6 

cultivated,   distribution 36 

flowers    6 

healthfulness   10 

number  of  species  cultivated  1 

ovulary   6 

palatability 10 

perennial,     method     of     in- 
crease      3 

practicums 103-109 

production  and  harvesting..  36 

rate  of  seeding 12 

reproduction     4 

styles    6 

table  of  analyses 14 

value  for  grazing 6 

variations    8 

Green    grass 71 

Ground  hackee 193 

squirrel    193 

Growing  point  of  leaf  of  grasses  6 

Guinea    grass 117 

Habit  of  grass  plants 3 

Habits      of      perennial      forage 

grasses    1 

Hairy  vetch 205 

Harrowing  improves  pastures...  35 

Hay  and  straw  fed  alone 15 

Hay  bale,  weight 49 

bales,  preferment  at  markets  49 

baling    48 

presses     48 

commercial  grades SO 

curing    39 


INDEX 


409 


PAGE 

Hay  curing,  economy 40 

defined    50 

density    48 

digestibility    15 

forks,   styles 47 

loaders,    styles 45 

marketing   49 

net  nutritive  value 15 

presses,    styles 48 

rakes,   styles 42 

rules  for  grading 50 

stacking   devices 45 

tame  grasses,  yield 37 

tedders 44 

time    of    harvesting 38 

washing  in  curing 40 

yields 22 

Hay-making  machines  and  mar- 
keting      40 

Healthfulness  of   grasses 10 

Hclianthus    tuberosus. 301 

Hemp    394 

harvesting     396 

in    America 395 

seeding   rate 396 

use   396 

Ilenequin    401 

Holcus   lanatiis 101 

relationships 2 

Hop  clover,   characteristics 202 

Hordeae,  native 25 

Hungarian  brome  grass 93 

clover    172 

Hybrid  turnips,  yields 286 

Identifying  seeds 20 

Illinois  Station  on  feeding  steers 

on  pasture ^7 

Impurities,  classes 17 

Influence   of   root-tuhevcles 126 

Inoculation,  alfalfa  soils 186 

methods    131 

need 130 

with  soil    130,  132 

Intravaginal,   examples 4 

Introduction        of        leguminous 

plants,    influence. . 138 

Iron    cowpea,    disease-resistant..  255 

Irrigation  of  alfalfa 187 

Tstle 401 

Italian   millet 114 

rye    grass 102 

Japan   clover 204 

duration    204 

in  cotton   states 24 

seeds   205 

Japanese    millet 114 

Jerusalem    artichoke 301 

J ohnson    grass 99 

cultural    methods 100 

extermination    100 

relationships    100 

June    grass 71 

Jute    396 

Kentucky  blue  grass,  adaptation  77 

advantages   78 

description    73 

disadvantages    78 


PAGE 

Kentucky   blue    grass,    flowering 

period    75 

harvesting  seed 79 

immediate    pasture 76 

in  old  pasture 71 

east    24 

name   71 

quick  sod 76 

relationships    72 

root   system 8 

seed,  harvesting 75 

source    79 

weight   per   bushel 76 

seeding    76 

seeds  to  pound 76 

stripping 79 

winter  pasture 78 

yield   of   seed 80 

Kidney  vetch 214 

Koeleria  cristata  in  west 24 

relationships    2 

Kohlrabi    290 

plants  per  acre 292 

seeds  per  pound 292 

yields    286 

Lawes  and  Gilbert  on  manures.  31 
Leaf  of  grasses,  growing  point.  6 
Leaves  of  economic   grasses....  6 
Legumes,   acquirement   of   nitro- 
gen    125 

bloat  from 10 

fertilizer  ingredients 136 

flower   forms 124 

for  seed 219 

kinds    219 

pollination    124 

regions     of     cultivation     in 

U.  S 248 

variations    123 

Leguminous      crops,      vegetation 

residue    136 

flower    122 

Leguminous   forage   crops — 

common    characters 122 

general   characters 121 

kinds    121 

name   121 

practicums    215-217 

Leguminous  plants — 

inoculation,  methods 131 

introduction,   influence 138 

value    134 

Leguminous  seed  characterized.  123 

test,   time 21 

Lespedesa  striata 204 

Lime  on  alfalfa 185 

legumes,    effect 133 

Linseed  meal 389 

oil    389 

Linum   lewisii 387 

perenne 387 

usitatissimum .' , . .  387 

Liciuid  cultures 132 

Loiium   ifalicum 102 

perenne 102 

Loss  in  seeding  grass  lands 13 

Lotus  americanus 211 


4IO 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Lotus  coniictilatus 211 

general   characters 211 

tetragonolobus 211 

uliginosus   212 

Lucerne    174 

Maguey     400 

Mammoth    clover 1 59 

adaptation    160 

advantages     159 

characteristics    159 

disadvantages     160 

rota:  ion 160 

iSl^ammoth   red  clover,   nurse  crop  27 

Mangel-wurzels,   adaptation 281 

dry    matter 278 

feeding    286 

half-sugar    279 

varieties    279 

weight    278 

when   to   fetd 287 

yields 286 

Manihot    palmala 300 

utilissima 300 

Manila    fiber 397 

hemp    397 

Manure  as  top  dressing 35 

Manures  for  grasses 32 

legumes 32 

Marketing   hay 49 

Marsh  bird's-foot   trefoil 212 

Meadow   fescue 88 

adaptation 91 

of  related  species 90 

germination    93 

harvesting    seed 93 

in  east 24 

North    America 91 

palatability    91 

purity 9Z 

relationships     88 

seed    92 

distinction    92 

seeding  rate 93 

seeds  to  pound 93 

yield  of  seed 93 

Meaaow    foxtail 62 

adaptation  and  value 63 

as  pasture  grass 64 

description    62 

distinction    52 

in    east 24 

relationships 2 

seed    63 

Meadow  grass,  relationships....  2 

Meadow   mouse 194 

Meadow,  timothy,  at  its  best...  30 

Medicago    denticulata 203 

falcata   1 74 

lupulina    201 

maculata   203 

media    199 

sativa    174 

Melilotus    213 

alba 213 

officinalis 213 

Mesquite  grass  in   west 24 

relationships    2 


PAGE 

Method  of  seeding  grasses 28 

Methods   of   inoculation 131 

Micro-organisms  and   nitrogen ..  125 

IMiddle    buster 352 

Millet  hay,  ill  effects 115 

Millets    112 

adaptability    114 

groups 112 

in    America 112 

rate   of   seeding 114 

seeding  time 114 

seeds  to        and 114 

species 112 

weight           bushel  seed 114 

Minor    clovers 172 

grasses    99 

Mixtures  of  seed,  calculating...  22 

Mowing-machine,    features 41 

styles   41 

■Mucttna  utilis 209 

Muhlenbergia,    relationships 2 

Musa   textilis 397 

Native  grasses,  acreage 24 

characteristics    24 

classification    25 

economic 25 

for  hay  and  forage 25 

Need   of   inoculation 130 

New    Hamoshire    Station,    nurse 

crop    27 

New  Zealand  hemp 401 

Nitrifying    organisms 132 

Nitrogen,    acquirement    by    leg- 
umes      125 

without    legumes 128 

assimilation  by  micro-organ- 
isms     125 

free,   when   acquired 125 

in    redtop 70 

Nodules   and    nitrogen 125 

Norfolk   rotation 292 

Number  plants  per  acre,  grasses  12 

Nurse  crop,  management 27 

Nutrients  of  grasses,   increase.  .  39 

Nutritive  value  of  foods 16 

hay 15 

Oat,   relationships 2 

Oats  and  peas  for  forage Ill 

Okra    311 

Onobrychis  sativa 214 

Orchard    grass 81 

adaptation 85 

adulterations    83 

cultural    methods 87 

description    81 

distribution    84 

duration    85 

flowering  time 82 

germination    84 

habit  of  growth 81 

harvesting  seed 88 

time  for  hay 87 

in  pasture  mixtures 84 

mixtures    87i 

name    81 

on   Pacific  coast 85 

palatability  8d 


INDEX 


411 


PAGE 

Orchard  grass,  pasture 24 

purity    83 

relationships    2,  81 

seed    82 

seeds  to  pound 83 

source   of   seed 88 

sowing  for  hay 84 

seed   84 

value   85 

weight   per  bushel   seed....  83 

yield  of  hay 86 

seed    84 

Organic  matter  in  soil 138 

Organisms,   denitrifying 132 

nitrifying    132 

Orobanche   minor 151 

ramosa    395 

Orysopsis  in  west 24 

relationships    2 

Ovular j^  of  grasses 6 

Palatability,  contrasts  in 10 

of    grasses 10 

Panicum    miliaceum 115 

crus-galH 116 

Panicums    117 

Para-grass    117 

Parsnips    300 

yields 286 

Pasttnaca  sativa 300 

Pasture,  influence  of  species...  25 

yield    37 

Pasture    grasses 23 

determining  species 31 

in    east 24 

west 23 

Pastures,  methods  of  improving  34 

of    England 26 

permanence  and  species.  ...  26 

Peanut,  adaptation 237 

butter    239 

hay    239 

pasture    239 

Peanuts    234 

composition 235 

cultivation    238 

description    234 

distribution    236 

grades   239 

harvesting    239 

planting 237 

production,  region 237 

seed,   for  planting 238 

soil    amendments 237 

Spanish,  for  grazing 238 

planting    238 

uses    239 

varieties   235 

yield 236 

Pearl   millet.... 117 

Pennisetum    spicatum 117 

Pennsylvania  Station  on  feed  to 

stock   on   pasture 38 

Perennial  forage  grasses 1 

grasses,  method  of  increase  3 

rye   grass 102 

seed    92 

Phalarideae,    relationships 2 


PAGE 

Fhalaris,   relationships 2 

Phaseolus   lunatus 219 

multiflorus   219 

vulgaris    219 

Phleoideae,    relationships 2 

Phleum  pratense    52 

relationships    2 

Phormium    tenax 401 

Pisunt   sativum 219 

Plasmodiophora   brassicae 293 

Poa,  commercial  seed 72 

compressa 88 

distinction    74 

in  the  east 124 

number  species 72 

pratensis 71 

relationships    2,  72 

Pocket   gophers :••••. 193 

Pods    a    means    of    identifying 

seeds    20 

Practicums,    fibers 309-3 10 

field    beans 240 

grasses    103-109 

legumes 215-217 

roots    301-30.' 

I'rairie   bird's-foot   trefoil 211 

marmots    194 

Prolificacy  and   cultivation 12 

limitations    12 

Pseudomonas  campestris 293 

Pure  seed,  law,  reference 16 

percentage  viable 16 

Quality  in  hay 39 

in  mixed  herbage 25 

of  seed 15 

influence IS 

Rachilla,  when  it  exists 20 

Ramie   397 

Kape,  adaptation 296 

cultivation    296 

description    295 

germination    297 

method  of  sowing 297 

types    296 

value    297 

varieties    295 

Ked  clover • 141 

adaptation 148 

adulterations    145 

blooming  time 144 

distribution    148 

duration    148 

feeding  value  vs.  timothy..  158 

fertilizinpr  constituents 158 

germination   146 

habit  of  growth 142 

harvesting   hay 154 

seed   155 

history     159 

impurities   145 

inflorescence    143 

insect  enemies 153 

name 141 

quantity  of  seed 151 

roots    141 

seed,    description 144 

difl'erent   sources 147 


412 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Red  clover  seed,  yield.. 156 

seeding   150 

rate    151 

value   157 

varieties    147 

viability    146 

weed    seeds 145 

weeds    151 

with  nurse  crop 27 

Kedtop 66 

adaptation 70 

as  hay  crop 70 

description      68 

distinction   of   forms 66 

flowering  period 69 

relationships   2,  66 

seed    69 

on  American  market...  66 

weight  per  bushel 69 

seeding   70 

seeds  to  pound 69 

sod   71 

value    70 

with   nurse   crop.. 27 

Reed   grass   relationships 2 

Reversiole   hay   rake 43 

Revolving  hay  rake 42 

Rhizome   defined 4 

Rhode  Island  bent 66 

Rhode    Island    Station   on    ferti- 
lizing meadows 34 

rotation   experiment 31 

Root    crops 275 

enemies 293 

name 275 

relationships    275 

standard  varieties 291 

yields 286 

Root  system,  legumes 123 

Roots,    distribution 22 

Rootstock    defined 4 

Root-tubercles  and  nitrogen....  125 

influence   126 

Rotation   in    pasture 31 

Norfolk     292 

of   meadows,   value 30 

Rotations    29 

Royal  commission  on  pastures.  .  26 

Rules,  grading  hay 50,  51 

Russian    cocksfoot 81 

Rutabaga    290 

seeds  to  pound 292 

Rutabagas,    adaptation 291 

description   291 

plants  to  acre 292 

value   295 

yields    286 

dry   matter 294 

Sainfoin    214 

Salad    oil 380 

Saltbushes    119 

Sampling  seeds 1^ 

Sand    lucerne 199 

Scarlet  clover 1 68 

Schrader's  brome  grass 93 

Seed  control   stations 16 

Seed,   identification 20 


PAGE 

Seed,  production  in  grasses....  6 

quality 15 

Seeding  grasses,  method 28 

time    28 

miscellaneous  mixture 22 

Seeds  and  mixtures 15 

sampling    19 

Side  delivery  hay  rake 42 

Sisal    399 

adaptation    400 

economic  importance 400 

propagation    400 

Smooth  brome  grass   93 

adaptation    94 

after  cereals    97 

blooming  time 96 

description    94 

drought-resistance    96 

duration    97 

harvesting  seed 95 

time   96 

palatability   96 

pasture,   subhumid   sections.  24 

relationships   2,  93 

root  system   8 

seeding  rate 95 

sowing 96 

time    95 

value   96 

weight   96 

Smooth-stalked  meadow  grass...  71 

Soap  stock 380 

Sod   of  different   grasses 8 

retarding  effects 13 

Soil,  loss  of  fertility 344 

Sorghum  halepense    99 

Sowing  grasses  with   fall  crops.  28 

Soy  bean    268 

adaptation    271 

description    268 

distribution    270 

flowers,  self-pollination   ....  268 

root-tubercles 271 

seeds  to  pound 269 

varieties    269 

Soy  beans,  cultivation 272 

harvesting 273 

insect  enemies 273 

seeding 272 

time   272 

value   273 

Spear  grass   71 

Spermophiliis 193 

Spinning  fibers,   classification...  306 

Spring  vetch    205 

Square  pod  pea 213 

Stacking   hay    45 

Stand  of  grass 33 

Stems  of  economic  grasses 6 

Stipa  in  west    24 

relationships    2 

Stiteae,  relationships 2 

Stolon  defined 3 

relation  to  culm   3 

Stoloniferous,  when  a  plant  is.  .  3 

Structural  fibers  defined 306 

Subhumid  sections,  pasture  for.  24 


INDEX 


413 


PAGE 

Sugar   beet,   essentials   of   good 

variety    280 

history 288 

improvement    287 

irrigation    .  .  . .  » 281 

seed  selection    288 

Sugar  beets  and  mangel-wurzels  277 

dry  matter 278 

feeding 286 

sugar  production 288 

weight   278 

yields  .;..... 286 

Summer  white  oil 380 

yellow  oil 380 

Sweep  hay  rake   43 

Sweet  cassava 300 

Sweet  vernal  grass   101 

relationships 2 

Symbiosis  in  legumes   127 

Tall  fescue 88 

meadow  fescue   88 

oat   grass 100 

relationships 2 

Tampico  fiber   , 401 

Temperature  of  germinating  test  20 

Teosinte    118 

Texas  millet 117 

Textile  fibers,  classification 306 

groups 307 

Time  of  seeding  grasses 28 

subhumid  sections    29 

Timothy    52 

adaptation    57 

advantages   61 

amount  of  seed 58 

and  orchard  grass  seed  ....  61 

crops  in  a  season 62 

description 52 

digestibility    60 

disadvantages 62 

distinction    52 

dry  matter 59 

duration 4,  62 

economic  importance 57 

history 52 

improvement    55 

in  rotation 30 

meadow  at  its  best 30 

method    of    fertilization    in 

flower    '.  56 

name 52 

prolificacy 4 

relationships   2,  52 

rotations   57 

seed   54 

adulteration   54 

harvesting    54 

seeding 58 

sown  with  wheat    28 

time  of  cutting 59 

utilitjr  in  pastures 24 

variations   55 

with  nurse  crop 27 

Trifolium  alexandrmum   172 

arvense    _ 168 

carolinianuin    162 

filiforme    172 


PAGE 

Trifolium  hybridunt    162 

incarnatum 168 

medium 159 

number  and  distribution  of 

species 140 

pannoniciDH    172 

pratense    141 

perenne 159 

repens 165 

Tubercles,  character    127 

Turnip    289 

adaptation    291 

and  rutabaga 290 

cultural  methods 292 

description   291 

plants  per  acre 292 

production    295 

seeds  to  pound   292 

value    294 

yield    286 

dry  matter 294 

Tussock  grass 81 

Value  of  grasses  for  grazing...        6 

leguminous  plants    134 

Variations  in  grasses 8 

Various  leaved  fescue 90 

Velvet  bean 209 

Velvet  grass    101 

relationships    2 

\'etches,  kinds 205 

Vicia  sativa 205 

villosa   205 

Vigna  catjang 219,  241 

sinensis   241 

Virgin  fertility 137 

Weeds,  in  clover  fields    151 

Weight,  hay  bale   49 

per  bushel,  grasses 17 

table    18 

Wheat  grass,  western 25 

White  and  yellow  melilotus.  . . .   213 

White  clover 165 

adaptation 166 

cross-fertilization    167 

description   165 

distribution    166 

germination    167 

giant  broad-leaved   166 

purity    167 

seed   167 

harvesting    167 

seeding    167 

seeds  to  pound   167 

viability 167 

Wild  grasses,  injurious 10 

Windrower 44 

Winged  oea 211 

Winter  oils   380 

Winter  vetch,  adaptation 207 

culture    208 

description 20*5 

value   207 

Wood  meadow  grass 73 

Yellow  lucerne 174 

suckling  clover 172 

characteristics 202 

trefoil   201 

Zigzag  clover 159 


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